Modern pharmacology. Pharmacology is the science of drugs. Main scientific centers abroad

PHARMACOLOGY is the science of the interaction of chemical compounds with living organisms. Pharmacology mainly studies drugs used for the prevention and treatment of various pathological conditions.
Pharmacology is a medical and biological science closely related to various areas of theoretical and practical medicine. Pharmacology, on the one hand, is based on the latest achievements of such sciences as physical chemistry, biochemistry, microbiology, biotechnology, etc., and on the other hand, it has a revolutionary, without exaggeration, influence on the development of related medical and biological disciplines: physiology, biochemistry, various areas of practical medicine. Thus, with the help of synaptically active substances, it was possible to reveal the mechanisms of synaptic transmission, study in detail the functions of various parts of the central nervous system, develop theoretical prerequisites for the treatment of mental illnesses, etc. The progress of pharmacology is also of great importance for practical medicine. It is enough to remember how important it was and remains to this day the introduction into medical practice of anesthesia, local anesthetics, the discovery of penicillin, etc.
Due to the great importance of pharmacotherapy for practical medicine,
dicines, knowledge of the basics of pharmacology is absolutely necessary for
doctor of any specialty.
The most important task of pharmacology is to find new drugs. Currently, the development, clinical trials and introduction of drugs into practice is carried out in many areas: experimental pharmacology, clinical pharmacology, toxicology, pharmacy, psychopharmacology, chemotherapy of infections, tumor diseases, radiation and environmental pharmacology, etc.
The history of pharmacology is as long as the history of mankind. The first medicines were obtained, as a rule, from plants empirically. Currently, the main way to create new drugs is directed chemical synthesis, but along with it there is also the isolation of individual substances from medicinal raw materials; isolation of medicinal substances from waste products of fungi and microorganisms, biotechnological production.
Search for new connections
I. Chemical synthesis
1. Directed synthesis
— reproduction of nutrients (AC, NA, vitamins);
— creation of antimetabolites (SA, antitumor drugs, ganglion blockers);
— modification of molecules with known biological activity (HA-synthetic HA);
- synthesis based on the study of the biotransformation of a substance in the body (prodrugs, agents that affect the biotransformation of other substances).
2. Empirical path: random findings, screening of various chemical compounds.
II. Isolation of individual medicinal substances from medicinal raw materials
1. Vegetable;
2. Animal;
3. Mineral.
III. Isolation of drugs from waste products of microorganisms, biotechnology (antibiotics, hormones, monoclonal antibodies to tumor cells in combination with a drug, etc.)
The creation of a new medicinal substance goes through a number of stages, which can be schematically represented as follows:
Idea or hypothesis
Creation of matter
Animal studies
1. Pharmacological: assessment of the expected main effect;
classification of other effects by organs and systems; .
2. Toxicological: acute and chronic toxicity. Causes
death of animals: biochemical, physiological and morphological methods of assessment.
3. Special toxicological: mutagenicity, carcinogenicity
(two animal species, histological examination of 30 tissues during chronic administration), effect on reproductive processes (ability to conceive, embryotoxicity, teratogenicity).
Clinical trials
1. Clinical pharmacology (on healthy volunteers): , ;
2. Clinical studies (on patients): pharmacodynamics, ;
3. Official clinical trials (on patients): blind and double-blind control, comparison with the effects of other medicinal substances - clinical practice;
4. Post-registration studies.

1. Routes of administration of drugs. Suction. Existing routes of drug administration are divided into
enteral (through the gastrointestinal tract) and parenteral (bypassing
gastrointestinal tract).
Enteral routes include: administration through the mouth - orally (per os), under the tongue (sublingual), into the duodenum (duodenal), into the rectum (rectal). The most convenient and common route of administration is through the mouth (orally). This does not require sterile conditions, the participation of medical personnel, or special devices (as a rule). When a substance is administered orally, it reaches the systemic bloodstream through absorption.
Absorption occurs to a greater or lesser extent throughout the gastrointestinal tract, but is most intense in the small intestine.
When the substance is administered sublingually, absorption occurs quite quickly. In this case, the drugs enter the systemic circulation, bypassing the liver, and are not exposed to the gastrointestinal tract.
Sublingual substances with high activity are prescribed, the dose of which
some are very small (low intensity of absorption): nitroglycerin, certain hormones.
A number of medicinal substances, such as acetylsalicylic acid and barbituric acid derivatives, are partially absorbed in the stomach. Moreover, they, being weak acids, are in undissociated form and are absorbed by simple diffusion.
When introduced into the rectum (per rectum), a significant part (up to
50%) of medicinal substances enter the bloodstream, bypassing the liver. In addition, in the lumen of the rectum, the drug is not exposed to the gastrointestinal tract. Absorption occurs by simple diffusion. Rectally, medicinal substances are used in suppositories (suppositories) or medicinal enemas. Moreover, depending on the nature of the pathological process, substances can be prescribed for both systemic and local effects.
The following absorption mechanisms are distinguished.
1. Passive diffusion through the cell membrane. Determined by the concentration gradient on both sides of the membrane. By passive diffusion, lipophilic nonpolar substances that are readily soluble in the lipid bilayer of the membrane are absorbed. The higher the lipophilicity, the better the substance penetrates the membrane.
2. Filtration through protein (hydrophilic) membrane pores. Depends on hydrostatic and osmotic pressure. The diameter of the pores in the membrane of intestinal epithelial cells is small (0.4 nm), so only small molecules can penetrate through them: water, some ions, a number of hydrophilic substances.
ny substances.
3. Active transport using specific transport systems of the cell membrane. Active transport is characterized by selectivity to a specific substance, the possibility of competition between various substrates for the transport mechanism, saturation and energy dependence of the transfer of substances against a concentration gradient. In this way, some hydrophilic molecules, sugars, and pyrimidines are absorbed.
4. Pinocytosis is carried out due to invagination of the cell membrane, the formation of a transport pinocytotic vesicle containing the transported substance and liquid, its transfer through the cytoplasm to the opposite side of the cell (from the luminal to the basal) and exocytosis of the contents of the vesicle to the outside. Vitamin B12 (in combination with intrinsic factor of Castle) and some protein molecules are absorbed through pinocytosis.
The main mechanism of absorption of drugs in the small intestine is passive diffusion. It is important to note that from the small intestine substances travel through the bloodstream to the liver, where some of them undergo inactivation; in addition, part of the substance directly in the intestinal lumen is exposed to digestive action and is destroyed. Thus, only a portion of the orally administered dose of the drug enters the systemic bloodstream (from where the medicine is distributed throughout the body). That part of the medicinal substance
va, which reached the systemic circulation in relation to the initial dose
of a drug is called bioavailability. The bioavailability value is expressed as a percentage:
amount of substance in the systemic circulation (max) x 100%
administered amount of substance
Factors affecting bioavailability
1. Pharmaceutical factors. The amount of medicinal substance
released from the tablet depends on the manufacturing technology: solubility, fillers, etc. Different branded tablets of the same substance (eg digoxin) can come in such different forms that they can cause very different effects.
2. Biological factors associated with intestinal function. To them
refers to the destruction of substances in the gastrointestinal tract itself, outside
absorption due to high peristalsis, binding of medicinal substances with calcium, iron, various sorbents, as a result of which they cease to be absorbed.
3. Presystemic (first pass) elimination. Some ve-
The substances have very low bioavailability (10-20%), despite the fact that they are well absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. This is due to the high degree of their metabolism in the liver.
It must be taken into account that in case of liver diseases (cirrhosis), the destruction of medicinal substances is slow, therefore even the usual dosage can cause a toxic effect, especially with repeated administration.
Parenteral routes of administration of drugs: subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous, intraarterial, intraperitoneal, inhalation, subarachnoid, suboccipital, intranasal, application to the skin (mucous membranes), etc. The choice of a specific route of administration is determined by the properties of the drug itself (for example, complete destruction in the gastrointestinal tract) and the specific therapeutic purpose of pharmacotherapy.
Distribution of drugs in the body.
Biological barriers. Deposit
From the blood, the drug enters organs and tissues. Most drugs are distributed unevenly in the body, as they pass differently through the so-called biological barriers: the capillary wall, the cell membrane, the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the placenta and other histo-hematological barriers. The capillary wall is quite permeable to most drugs; Substances penetrate the plasma membrane either using special transport systems or (lipophilic) by simple diffusion.
The BBB is of great importance for the distribution of various drugs. It should be noted that polar compounds pass through the BBB poorly, while nonpolar (lipophilic) compounds pass relatively easily. The placental barrier has similar properties. When prescribing medications, the doctor must know exactly the ability of the substance to penetrate or not penetrate the appropriate barrier.
The distribution of the administered drug depends to a certain extent on its deposition. There are cellular and extracellular depots. The latter include blood proteins such as albumin. Albumin binding for some drugs can reach 80-90%. Medicines can be deposited in bone tissue and dentin (tetracycline), in adipose tissue (deposition of lipophilic compounds - anesthetics). The deposition factor has a certain significance for the duration of action of the drug.
It should be noted that the distribution of a substance in certain organs and tissues does not characterize its action, which depends on the specific sensitivity of the corresponding biological structures to it.
Biotransformation of medicinal substances in the body
Most of the medicinal substances that enter the body undergo biotransformation, i.e. certain chemical transformations, in some cases as a result of which they, as a rule, lose their activity; however, as a result of biotransformation of the drug substance, a new, more active compound is formed (in this case, the administered drug is the so-called precursor or prodrug).
The most important role in biotransformation processes is played by microsomal livers, which metabolize substances (xenobiotics) of a hydrophobic nature that are foreign to the body, turning them into more hydrophilic compounds. Microsomal oxidases of mixed action, which do not have substrate specificity, oxidize hydrophobic xenobiotics with the participation of NADP, oxygen and cytochrome P450. Inactivation of hydrophilic substances occurs with the participation of non-microsomal enzymes of different localizations (liver, gastrointestinal tract, blood plasma, etc.).
There are two main types of drug transformation:
1. metabolic transformation,
2. conjugation.
Medicinal substance
———————- —————————
| Metabolic | | Conjugation: |
| transformation: | | - with glucuronic acid;
| - oxidation; | | - with sulfuric acid; |
| — restoration ————- — with glutathione; |
| hydrolase | | - methylation; |
| | | — acetylation |
———————- —————————

METABOLITES CONJUGATES
EXCRETION
Excretion of most drugs occurs through the kidneys and liver (with bile into the gastrointestinal tract). The exception is volatile gaseous substances used for anesthesia - they are released mainly by the lungs.
Water-soluble, hydrophilic compounds are excreted through the kidneys by filtration, reabsorption, and secretion in various combinations. It is clear that a process such as reabsorption significantly reduces the excretion of the drug from the body. It must be taken into account that the reabsorption process significantly depends on the polarity (ionized or non-ionized form) of the substance. The higher the polarity, the worse the reabsorption of the substance. For example, when urine is alkaline, weak acids are ionized and, therefore, are less reabsorbed and excreted to a greater extent. These are, in particular, barbiturates and other hypnotics, acetylsalicylic acid, etc. This circumstance is important to consider in case of poisoning.
If the drug substance is hydrophobic (lipophilic), then it cannot be excreted in this form through the kidneys, since it undergoes almost complete reabsorption. Such a substance is excreted through the kidneys only after transitioning to a hydrophilic form; this process is carried out in the liver through the biotransformation of this substance.
A number of drugs and their transformation products are excreted in significant quantities with bile into the intestines, from where they are partially excreted with excrement, and partially reabsorbed into the blood, again enter the liver and are excreted into the intestines (the so-called enterohepatic recirculation). It should be emphasized that consumption of fiber and other natural or artificial sorbents, as well as acceleration of gastrointestinal motility, can significantly accelerate the elimination of these drugs.
One of the most common pharmacokinetic parameters is the so-called half-life (t1/2). This is the time during which the content of the substance in the blood plasma decreases by 50%.
This decrease is due to both the processes of biotransformation and excretion of the drug. Knowledge of (t1/2) facilitates the correct dosage of a substance to maintain its stable (therapeutic) concentration in the blood plasma.

Qualitative aspects of pharmacotherapy.
Types of action of drugs
There are local and resorptive; direct and reflex effects of drugs.
The action of a substance that occurs at the site of its application is called local. For example, enveloping substances, a number of external anesthetics, various ointments, etc. act locally.
The action of a substance that develops after its absorption (resorption) is called resorptive.
Both with local and resorptive effects, drugs can have either a direct or reflex effect. Direct influence is realized through direct contact with the tissue. target organ. For example, adrenaline has a direct effect on the heart, increasing the strength and frequency of heart contractions. However, the same adrenaline, reflexively increasing the tone of the vagus nerve, can after some time cause bradycardia. Substances such as the so-called respiratory analeptics (cytiton, lobeline) act reflexively, which, when administered intravenously, stimulate the respiratory center of the medulla oblongata by stimulating the receptors of the sino-carotid zone.
Mechanisms of action of drugs
There are several main types of drug action.
I. Effect on cell membranes:
a) effects on receptors (insulin);
b) impact on ionic permeability (directly or through enzyme systems - transport ATPases, etc. - calcium channel blockers, cardiac glycosides;
c) effects on lipid or protein components of the membrane (anesthetics).
II. Effect on intracellular metabolism:
a) impact on the activity of enzymes (hormones, salicylates, aminophylline, etc.);
b) effects on protein synthesis (antimetabolites, hormones). III. Effect on extracellular processes:
a) disturbance of the metabolism of microorganisms (antibiotics);
b) direct chemical interaction (antacids);
c) osmotic effect of substances (laxatives, diuretics), etc.
Let us dwell in more detail on the interaction of drugs with receptors and their effect on enzyme activity.
Receptors are active groups of substrate macromolecules (usually membranes) with which the drug interacts. More often we will talk about receptors for neurotransmitters and neuromodulators. Thus, various types of receptors can be located on the postsynaptic membrane and outside it. Depending on the name of the ligand (a substance that interacts with the receptor), there are: adreno-, cholinergic, dopamine, histamine, opiate and other receptors. Most often, the receptors are lipoprotein complexes of the membrane. The number of receptors on the cell membrane is not a constant value; it depends on the amount and duration of action of the ligand. There is an inverse relationship between the amount of ligand (agonist) and the number of receptors on the membrane: with an increase in the amount or duration of use of a synaptically active substance, the number of receptors for it sharply decreases. Which leads to a decrease in the effect of the drug. This is a phenomenon called tachyphylaxis. On the contrary, with prolonged action of the antagonist (as with denervation), the number of receptors increases, which leads to an increase in the influence of endogenous ligands (for example, after long-term use of beta-blockers, their withdrawal leads to an increase in the sensitivity of the myocardium to endogenous catecholamines - tachycardia develops, in some cases - arrhythmias, etc.).
The affinity of a substance (ligand) for a receptor, leading to the formation of a ligand-receptor complex, is designated by the term affinity. The ability of a substance to interact with a receptor to cause a particular effect is called intrinsic activity.
Substances that, when interacting with receptors, cause changes in them, leading to a biological effect similar to the effect of a natural mediator or hormone, are called agonists. They also have internal activity. If an agonist interacts with the receptor to produce the maximum effect, it is called a full agonist. Unlike full agonists, partial agonists do not produce the maximum effect when interacting with receptors.
Substances that do not cause a corresponding effect when interacting with receptors, but reduce or eliminate the effects of agonists, are called antagonists. If they (bind to) the same receptors as agonists, then they are called competitive antagonists; if
- with other parts of the macromolecule that are not related to the receptor part, then these are non-competitive antagonists.
If the same compound simultaneously has the properties of both an agonist and an antagonist (that is, it causes an effect but eliminates the effect of the other agonist), then it is designated an agonist-antagonist.
The drug can interact with the receptor through covalent bonds, ionic (electrostatic interactions), van der Waals, hydrophobic and hydrogen bonds.
Depending on the strength of the “substance-receptor” bond, a distinction is made between reversible (typical in most cases) and irreversible (covalent bond) effects of medicinal substances.
If a substance interacts with one type of receptor and does not affect others, then the effect of this substance is considered selective, or, better said, preferential, because Absolute selectivity of action of substances practically does not exist.
The interaction of both a natural ligand and an agonist with the receptor causes a variety of effects: 1) a direct change in the ionic permeability of the membrane; 2) action through the system of so-called “second messengers” - G-proteins and cyclic nucleotides; 3) influence on DNA transcription and protein synthesis (Dale). In addition, the drug can interact with so-called nonspecific binding sites: albumins, tissue glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), etc. These are places where matter is lost.
The interaction of the drug with enzymes is largely
similar to its interaction with the receptor. Drugs may change
enzyme activity, as they may be similar to natural
substrate and compete with it for the enzyme, and this competition
can also be reversible or irreversible. It is also possible
allosteric regulation of enzyme activity.
So, the mechanism of action of a medicinal substance from the point of view of qualitative aspects determines the direction of influence on a particular process. However, for each drug there are also quantitative criteria, which are very important, because the dose of the substance must be carefully selected, otherwise the drug will either not provide the desired effect or will cause intoxication.
In the area of ​​so-called therapeutic doses, there is a certain proportional dependence of the effect on the dose (the so-called dose-dependent effect of the substance), however, the nature of the dose-effect curve is individual for each drug. In general, we can say that as the dose increases, the latent period decreases and the severity and duration of the effect increases.
At the same time, with an increase in the dose of the drug, an increase in a number of side and toxic effects is observed. In addition, a further increase in the dose of the drug (after achieving the maximum therapeutic effect) does not lead to an increase in effect, but various undesirable reactions are observed. For practice, the ratio of drug doses, the resulting therapeutic and toxic effects, is important. Therefore, Paul Ehrlich introduced the concept of “therapeutic index”, which is equal to the ratio:
maximum tolerated dose
maximum therapeutic dose
In reality, such an index is not determined in patients, but in animals it is determined by the ratio
LD50x100%,
ED50
where LD50 is the dose that causes the death of 50% of animals;
ED50 is the dose that produces the desired effect in 50% of animals.
Among the doses used in clinical practice are:
- single dose;
- daily dose (pro die);
- average therapeutic dose;
- the highest therapeutic dose;
- course dose.
Calculation of doses: in addition to standard pharmacopoeial ones, in some cases the dose is calculated per kg of body weight or body surface area.
Repeated use of medications
With repeated use of medicinal substances, both the effects of weakening and enhancing the effect of medicinal substances can be observed.
I. Weakening of the effect: a) addiction (tolerance); b) tachyphylaxis.
II. Strengthening the effect - cumulation a) functional (ethyl alcohol), b) material (glycosides)].
III. A special reaction that develops with repeated use of drugs is drug dependence (mental and physical), in which a “withdrawal syndrome” develops. Withdrawal syndrome, in particular, is characteristic of antihypertensive substances, beta-blockers, and central nervous system depressants; hormones (GK).
Drug interactions
As a rule, during treatment the patient is prescribed not one, but several drugs. It is important to consider the ways in which drugs interact with each other.
There are:
I. Pharmaceutical interactions;
II. Pharmacological interaction:
a) based on mutual influence on pharmacokinetics (absorption,
binding, biotransformation, enzyme induction, excretion);
b) based on mutual influence on pharmacodynamics;
c) based on chemical and physical interaction in the internal environment of the body.
The pharmacodynamic interaction is most important. The following types of interaction are distinguished:
I. Synergism: summation (additive effect) - when the effect of
the use of two drugs is equal to the sum of the effects of two drugs A and
B. Potentiation: the combined effect is greater than the simple sum of the effects
drugs A and B.
II. Antagonism: chemical (antidotism); physiological (be-
Ta-blockers - atropine; sleeping pills - caffeine, etc.).
Main types of drug therapy:
— Preventive use of drugs;
— Etiotropic therapy (AV, SA, etc.);
— Pathogenetic therapy (hypotensive drugs);
— Symptomatic therapy (analgesics);
— Replacement therapy (insulin).
Main and side effects of drugs. Allergic reactions. Idiosyncrasy.
Toxic effects
The main effect of drugs is determined by the purpose of pharmacotherapy, for example, the prescription of analgesics for pain relief, levamisole as an immunomodulator or as an anthelmintic, etc. Along with the main one, almost all substances also have a number of side effects. Side effects (non-allergic in nature) are determined by the spectrum of pharmacological action of a particular drug. For example, the main effect of aspirin is an antipyretic effect, a side effect is a decrease in blood clotting. Both of these effects are due to a decrease in arachidonic acid metabolism.
Primary and secondary side effects of drugs are distinguished. Primary occurs as a direct consequence of the action of this drug on any substrate or organ: for example, when using the drug atropine to reduce gastric secretion, dry mouth, tachycardia, etc. occur. Secondary - refers to indirect adverse effects - for example, dysbiosis and candidiasis during antibiotic therapy. Adverse effects are very diverse and include inhibition of hematopoiesis, damage to the liver, kidneys, hearing, etc. With long-term use of various drugs, secondary diseases occur (steroid diabetes, immunodeficiencies, aplastic anemia, etc.).
The negative effects of pharmacological drugs include allergic reactions of varying severity. It must be emphasized that the occurrence of allergic reactions does not depend on the dose of the drug; they can occur even during a skin test. The most dangerous is anaphylactic shock that occurs when using penicillin and other drugs.
Idiosyncrasy is an atypical, often genetically determined, associated with a certain enzymopathy, an individual’s reaction to a drug. For example, in individuals with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, the use of sulfonamides can cause a hemolytic crisis.
All of these reactions occur mainly when using medium therapeutic doses. When using maximum therapeutic doses or overdose, toxic effects occur - damage to the auditory nerve, arrhythmias, depression of the respiratory center, hypoglycemia, etc. Toxic effects can also be observed when using normal doses in patients with damage to the main excretory systems (liver, kidneys) or the so-called “slow acetylators”.
In addition to somatic toxic effects, a distinction is made between toxic effects on the embryo and fetus - embryo- and fetotoxicity. Although most drugs are tested for embryo-fetotoxicity, however, these drugs, of course, were not tested in humans during pregnancy, therefore, it is better to refrain from using any medications during pregnancy (especially the first three months), except those prescribed for health reasons.
Basic principles of treatment of acute drug poisoning
I. Delay in absorption of the drug into the blood
- vomiting, gastric lavage, activated charcoal;
— sorbents;
- laxatives;
- tourniquet on a limb.
II. Removing toxic substances from the body
- forced diuresis;
— peritoneal dialysis, hemodialysis, plasmapheresis;
— hemosorption, etc.;
- blood replacement.
III. Neutralization of absorbed medicinal (toxic) substances
- antidotes;
- pharmacological (physiological antagonists).
IY. Pathogenetic and symptomatic treatment of acute poisoning Monitoring the function of vital organs and homeostasis indicators
— central nervous system;
- breathing;
- of cardio-vascular system;
- kidney;
— homeostasis: acid-base state, ionic and water balance, glucose, etc.
One of the most important measures is the prevention of acute poisoning (especially in children). Keep medications out of the reach of children.

Pharmacology(from Greek " pharmakon" - medicine, poison and " logos" - word, doctrine) is a medical and biological science that studies the effect of medicinal substances on living organisms, and usually in pathological conditions, translation into English - " pharmacology «.

Pharmacology is an important key link in medicine, since ancient times, today it is mandatory for all doctors, regardless of their specialty, and has collected all the necessary knowledge that Hippocrates spoke about, who was the first to study in detail and describe important drugs for the quality treatment of diseases.

It is pharmacology that individually and in detail studies changes in the body, both human and animal in a certain state under the influence of specific medications, that contributed to the origin and development of pharmacy, with subsequent control by the state, due to its enormous importance. In Russia, Peter I took the pharmaceutical business into his own hands, banning the sale of drugs outside the pharmacy that had not passed state control and examination.

Pharmacology - as a science, includes many aspects in medicine, for example in such areas as: experimental and clinical medicine, interacting with many scientific disciplines, acquires great importance and is one of the most important and progressive areas of medicine.

Sections of pharmacology:

1) General (fundamental) pharmacology everywhere studies the relevance and chemical composition of drugs;

2) Private pharmacology analyzes the processes of the influence of drugs on a specific organ of the human or animal body;

3) Experimental pharmacology acts as a tester of chemical compounds regarding the effectiveness and acceptability of their use;

History of pharmacology (briefly).

The history of pharmacology is closely connected with the history of medicine and has several thousand years of history. In the IV-III centuries. BC. Hippocrates was able to systematize the indications for the use of drugs known at that time. And in the II century. Galen gives basic principles for the use and purification of medicines. To this day, there are so-called galenic preparations (extracts, tinctures), based on alcohol purification of the active substances of medicinal plant materials from various kinds of ballast components. Starting from the 10th-11th centuries, Avicenna developed a systematization of the use of medicinal substances.

The development of pharmaceutical science in Russia began at a tremendous pace in the 18th century with the reforms of Peter I. He issued decrees prohibiting the sale of medicines outside pharmacies and for the first time a state body was created to manage all pharmacies, the so-called “Pharmaceutical Office”. And already in 1778 the first Russian Pharmacopoeia was published. Due to the enormous growth of the pharmaceutical industry, pharmacology over the past two to three decades has received at its disposal a huge number of new drugs, amounting to hundreds of thousands of items.

Read more here: ,.

There are two types of names used to designate medicines:

- generic – these are non-proprietary names that are used in international and national pharmacopoeias;

- trading - these are brand names that are the property of the pharmaceutical company that produces this type of drug.

Based on this, the same drug may have several brand names. But most importantly, on the packaging of any drug, in addition to the brand name, the generic name must also be indicated.

I suggest watching an excellent interview with Professor Oleg Medvedev, Head of the Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Fundamental Medicine, Moscow State University. Friends, can anyone add anything to all of the above?

Medicine Science

The first letter is "f"

Second letter "a"

Third letter "r"

The last letter is "I"

Answer for the clue "Science of drugs", 12 letters:
pharmacology

Alternative questions in crossword puzzles for the word pharmacology

The science of using medicinal substances and their effects on the body

This is what they called the science that studies the healing properties of plants in ancient Greece.

Drug Science

Definition of the word pharmacology in dictionaries

Wikipedia Meaning of the word in the Wikipedia dictionary
Pharmacology (from - “medicine”, “poison” and - “word”, “teaching”) is the medical and biological science of medicinal substances and their effect on the body; in a broader sense - the science of physiologically active substances in general. If substances are used in pharmacotherapy...

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. D.N. Ushakov The meaning of the word in the dictionary Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language. D.N. Ushakov
pharmacology, pl. no, w. (from the Greek pharmakon - medicine and logos - teaching). The science of the effects of medicinal substances on the body.

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. S.I.Ozhegov, N.Yu.Shvedova. The meaning of the word in the dictionary Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language. S.I.Ozhegov, N.Yu.Shvedova.
-and, ac. The science of medicinal and other biologically active substances and their effect on the human and animal body. Biochemical f Clinical f. adj. pharmacological, -aya, -oe.

Dictionary of medical terms Meaning of the word in the dictionary Dictionary of medical terms
a science that studies the effect of medicinal and other biologically active substances on the human and animal body.

Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, Dal Vladimir The meaning of the word in the dictionary Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, Dal Vladimir
and. Greek part of medical science: about the action and use of drugs and potions. Pharmacologist, scientist in this field. Pharmacological readings. Pharmacolite, fossil: arsenic acid lime. Pharmacopoeia w. registration of medicines and drugs, which pharmacies are obliged to...

New explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova. The meaning of the word in the dictionary New explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova.
and. A scientific discipline that studies drugs and their effects on the body. An academic subject containing the theoretical foundations of a given scientific discipline. decomposition A textbook setting out the content of a given academic subject.

Examples of the use of the word pharmacology in literature.

And the investigator appointed an expert commission consisting of the chief forensic expert of the Ministry of Health of the Republic, the head of the department pharmacology Medical Institute, assistant at the Department of Surgery at the Faculty of Advanced Medical Studies, forensic histologist, chemist and other specialists.

In developed countries with their chemicalization, developed pharmacology, automation of everyday life, outright obesity and dullness occur.

Various allopathic reference books on pharmacology describe the effect of drugs on a disease - this is an unscientific approach and a rather shaky aid for medical practice.

An example is the transformation of such initially purely tactical techniques as presentation for identification, an investigative experiment, checking testimony on the spot, taking samples, into independent procedural actions. Being legislated, these actions become the subject of the theory of evidence, and criminology continues to deepen and detail the tactical conditions of their carrying out, ways and methods of achieving the goals of legal regulation. In contrast to criminology, such auxiliary sciences as forensic medicine, forensic psychiatry, forensic chemistry, are usually classified as natural sciences, considering the first and second as special branches of general medicine, and the third as a branch of chemistry or pharmacology This rightly emphasizes that these sciences primarily contain data from medicine or chemistry, adapted to resolve issues related to the study of evidence.

The next month, he tried on himself auromycin, bacitracin, stannous fluoride, hexidresorcinol, cortisone, penicillin, hexachlorophene, shark liver extract and another 7312 world inventions. pharmacology.

PHARMACOLOGY (from the Greek pharmakon - medicine, poison and logos - word, teaching), the science of the action of medicinal substances on a living organism. The word F. first appeared in the 17th century; in 1693 Dale entitled his work on pharmacognosy “Pharmacologia, s. manuductio ad materiam medicam." Only almost a hundred years later, Gren published (in 1790) a manual on medicinal substances with the doctrine of their therapy. and physiol. action under the title Handbuch der Pharmacologie. Experimental physiology developed at first thanks to the works of physiologists (Claude Bernard, Stannius, Schiff, and others); The first school of pharmacologists arose led by Bukhheim, who created the first pharmacol in 1847. laboratory at Dorpat University. An experimental method for examining the effect of medicinal substances consists of studying the effect on healthy animals, on their systems and individual organs; research is often also carried out on single-celled organisms, such as ciliates, fungi, bacteria; Plants are often used as experimental material. After studying pharmacodynamics in healthy animals, the study of drugs continues on sick animals, since the susceptibility of healthy and sick organisms is often different. With this type of research it is often possible to outline the basis for therapy. use of the drug, thereby further clarifying the suitability, value and possible uses of the studied substance in the patient. The last stage of the experimental study of the substance takes place in clinics, where the therapy is determined. the effect of a medicinal substance with all its features and side effects. According to the same plan, medicinal substances that have been used for a long time are studied, since it is necessary to establish the mechanism of their action, fate in the body, location in it, routes of excretion, cumulative or synergistic effect, etc., subject to the diseased state of the body. The subject of pharmacology. studies may also include substances that are not used in therapy, but deserve attention, for example. due to its toxicity. According to its content, f. is divided into so-called. general physiology and particular physiology. The content of general physiology serves, in addition to defining the subject and tasks of physiology, setting the boundaries of physiology in a number of disciplines that study the various properties of medicinal substances, clarifying the essence of local and general, resp. resorptive, action of medicinal or toxic substances on the body, reflex, selective or specific, clarification of the various phases of action and various conditions on the part of the body and on the part of the medicinal substance that affect the manifestation of the action of drugs or poisons, taking into account the nature of their action, routes of administration, distribution in the body and the routes of elimination from the body, as well as those changes that the drugs or poisons themselves undergo in the body. That. in the department of general physiology, questions of general toxicology also find a place. - Partial physiology studies individual medicinal substances in relation to their effect on the whole organism and on its systems, on animal organs in situ, on isolated organs, on metabolism substances, at t°; studies all the questions specified in the general F., but in relation to each medicinal (resp. poisonous) substance. Pharmacol. the study captures the life of an animal under conditions of 1) the initial effect of the drug-physiol. action; further 2) the developed action of the drug, but still within the boundaries of b. or m. healthy state of the body; such an effect approaches the effect of a medicine used in the so-called. middle therapists doses; in both cases, phenomena resulting from the influence of a medicinal substance are characterized by their reversibility; finally, the drug is studied under conditions where its action disturbs the normal state of equilibrium and signs of toxic action appear; the reaction may still be reversible in these cases, but not always; 3) when the body dies from changes that occur under the influence of an administered substance (lethal doses) - the reaction is irreversible. Measures to help a patient poisoned by a medicine are also developed by F. Private F. establishes the principles of indications for therapy. prescription of a medicinal substance, as well as contraindications under certain conditions on the part of the drug, and is in close connection with physiology and physiol. chemistry, using their methods and all the results and conclusions. F. studies the effect of drugs on a sick organism, therefore F.’s connection with Pat. physiology also seems quite natural, especially since medications can also cause a wide variety of pathologies. phenomena in the body. In turn, F. contributes to the success and development of these disciplines, serving them with his data on medicinal and toxic substances used to study various physiol. and Pat. functions and processes. Bacteriology and microbiology, in addition to their contact with F. on problems of a general biological nature, work together on issues of the pharmacodynamic properties of medicinal serums, the action of toxins and endotoxins, protective serums, antiseptic and disinfectant substances, etc. Moral foul. honey. sciences, led by a microscope, anatomy also mutually £29 with F. serve each other's needs; the former provide F. with a material substrate, the effect of drugs and poisons on which is studied by her, and the latter, with her research, comes to the aid of the former not only in determining the dynamic significance of the devices being studied, but also their morphology. structures (Lavrentiev). Physics also owes its development and success to chemistry and physics, with which its connection is growing stronger and is the foundation for further progress in pharmacology. knowledge. Physics teaching and colloidal chemistry most fundamentally influences the solution of pharmacol problems. character about the intimate side of the action of medicinal substances on the cell and on the body as a whole, about the distribution of medicinal substances in the body and about the points of application of the action of poisons, about the conditions of action of drugs in the body, about changes in the blood and tissues, etc. Development of chemistry and in In particular, pharmaceutical chemistry with its methods for the synthetic production of medicinal substances helped resolve the issue, outlined by Bukhheim, about the dependence of the effects of drugs and poisons on their physical and chemical properties. properties and made it possible to establish the principle of similarity pharmacol. actions in chemically related bodies. The varied, centuries-old use of medicines for therapeutic purposes has connected F. with all types of therapy. F., serving clinics, in turn strives to carry out all the latest means, as well as new information about the substances used, through wedge analysis. The connection between F. and the judicial medicine is established through the department of toxicology. This latter has gained great importance in modern times, especially in the USSR, where the task of eliminating hazards affecting the health and productivity of workers was put into full swing. Therefore, sanitation and hygiene with all its subdepartments. , in particular, prof. hygiene and food hygiene, closely engaged in the study of the pharmacodynamics of many substances, the effects of which can adversely affect the health of workers under certain conditions of production or nutrition, or the use of prepared items, work hand in hand with F. In especially close F. is in contact with pharmaceutical chemistry, with pharmaceutical formulations and, through the latter, with the technology of drugs and forms; data from these disciplines are largely developed by pharmacology. Modern physiology concentrates its attention on the following tasks: 1) find and combine into one the most important laws that will make it possible to determine the nature and direction of the action of drugs on the body; 2) to study the transformation of drugs in the body of animals, in particular in humans, the place of distribution in the body, the route of excretion and the action of both the administered substance and its products of transformation in the body, in connection with the study of the environment in which the drug acts. The most important particular problems in this aspect are the following: 1) the problem of the action of heavy metals in connection with electrolytic. dissociation of their compounds; 2) question about pharmacol. irritants in connection with issues of isoionicity and isotonicity of the environment surrounding the cell; 3) the problem of anesthesia in connection with work on means for inhalation, intravenous and rectal anesthesia; 4) question about sleeping pills; 5) poisons of the autonomic nervous system with sympathicotropic and parasympathicotropic effects; 6) study of foxglove. ergot and other herbal preparations; 7) the synergistic effect of substances and the relationship in action between simple mixtures and compounds; 8) phenomena of habituation to certain drugs or poisons; 9) question about potential poisons; 10) study of the strength, speed and duration of action of drugs; 11) development of the problem of the relationship between the chemical structure and pharmacological action of medicinal and toxic substances; 12) study of natural (obtained from various plants) and synthetic camphor; 13) the problem of penetration and circulation of iodine in the body and its effect on metabolism, nutrition and tissue structure; 14) the problem of using drugs for preventive purposes; 15) studying the effect of drugs introduced into the body in minimal quantities; substances depending on their dosage form; 17) problems of hormone therapy, organotherapy, protein therapy; 18) the problem of studying traditional medicine. Methods as a science adjacent to the cycle of biological disciplines use all methods of experimental physiology. , biol. and colloid chemistry, microchemistry, the method of biological analysis, in many cases adapting and specializing them so much that essentially one or another method is strengthened by F. The method of isolated organs in relation to the liver, kidneys and heart, introduced by physiologists, worked out by Kravkov. and his students on the heart, liver, ear and other parts of the body, is generally considered to be F., since the technique is used to study medicinal and toxic substances. Having determined the quality and intensity of the pharmacological action of the medicinal agent, it is then subjected to wedge testing and application. - History of pharmacology. experimental method is also known by the so-called. therapist methods, which include: 1) ancient therapy. the method is empirical, roughly experimental, and has provided enormous material about medicines, but not illuminated by scientific theory; 2) statistical method; applied with all the rigor of scientific criticism, it becomes a necessary and strict judge of modern experimental methods of laboratory and wedge, drug research; 3) symptomatic method, which consists in recording observations of the elimination or relief with the help of medications of specific painful symptoms of diseases, but the main cause and essence of the disease remains without attention; 4) the method of suggestion, when the effect of a medicine is looked at not as a result of the influence of certain material forces, but as a means of influencing the patient’s psyche; Therefore, the taste of the medicine, its smell, especially the novelty of the drug and the novelty of the method of administration are highly valued by the method of suggestion. While the experimental method of studying medicinal substances since the 40s of the 19th century. especially began to be cultivated in Germany, French scientists concentrated the study of medicinal substances in clinics, using mainly therapy for this. methods. This is how two main pharmacological schools were created; The French one was joined by specialists in England and Italy, and the German one was joined by scientists from other European countries, in particular Russians, who usually received and supplemented their special education in Germany. The development of pharmacodynamics in laboratories was so successful that the German school of pharmacologists transferred the entire study of the action of medicinal substances to the laboratory, concentrating the study of medicinal products only on animals; in the 60s of the 19th century. German pharmacologists even expressed the opinion that F. does not care whether the substance being studied will be used in clinics, the only important thing is which physiol. the effect the substance under study has on the body. This is the view of pharmacophysiologists. Current scientific philosophy is far from such a view. In the present, time and French pharmacol. the school under the leadership of Tiffeneau, Fourneau and Florence significantly deepened its research on medicinal substances by studying them using the experimental laboratory method on animals, while at the same time conducting conventional therapies on the same drugs. study methods. There was a shift towards the clip and examination of medicines in the German school in the 70s of the 19th century, when Schmiedeberg “together with the clinician Naunin organized pharmacol. a magazine that gives space to articles with a wedge, analysis of the effect of drugs; In the second decade of the present century, in the person of G. Meyer (Vienna), the German school raised the question of the need to join wedges, departments to pharmacological institutes to study the pharmacodynamic properties of medicinal substances in all the diversity of their actions in humans. After that Heutmer (Gettingen, Berlin) organized joint teaching at the university on certain questions of the effects of drugs with a therapist Bornstein (Hamburg) systematically studied the effects of drugs in parallel in the laboratory on animals and in the clinic on humans. In Russia, Bogoslovsky (Moscow). ) back in the 90s of the 19th century, he arranged the teaching of F. in such a way that students saw the effect of drugs not only on animals, but also on patients in the clinic. Kravkov followed the same path in his research. Department of Pharmacology 1 MMI (. Nikolaev) raised the question of the need to reform the teaching of medicine in the direction of parallel study by students of medicinal substances in the laboratory on animals and in the clinic on humans. The latest medicinal substances produced by Soviet pharmaceutical companies. industry, are studied experimentally in pharmakol. laboratories and clinics on used and - only after such a test are recommended for medical use. The most prominent therapists (Pletnev) speak out for the timeliness of experimental study of drugs in humans, and not just in animals. In Italy, where previously the direction of the French school dominated in F., later under the influence of the German school, which educated a large number of modern Italian pharmacologists (Baldoni, Cervello), the doctrine of the action of drugs strongly deviated towards laboratory research. In England, Cuslmy combined experimental and therapeutic studies of medicinal substances. methods and managed to turn English F. onto this combined path. The Japanese school of pharmacologists, headed by Morishima and Hayashi, students of the German experimental school, works using both experimental laboratory and clinical therapeutic methods. American pharmacologists also work in the same direction. In the USSR, Kravkov created a prominent Leningrad school of pharmacologists, now headed by Likhachev. The Kazan (Dogel), Tomsk (Burzhinsky), Moscow (Chervinsky) schools are not rich in students; the first and last are experimental and physiological in nature, the second is experimental with a wedge, a bias^ F. is studied in the crust, time in Western Europe in special pharmakol. in-tah with high boots. Pharmakol is perfectly arranged and equipped. institutes in Freiburg (Baden), Munich, Bonn, Dusseldorf. Some occupy separate buildings of 3-4 floors. The institutes have departments: experimental vivisection, chemical, and in some places bacteriological; library, museum, material, darkroom; auditorium, separate rooms for the work of professors, assistants and medical specialists; Some institutes have rooms for practical training for students, a room for experimental animals, and a room with a low temperature. The vivarium is set up at the institute in a special room with sections for various animals; ranarium; glacier, basement. In Italy there is Pharmakol. experimental institutes, but there are institutes of a mixed type - institutes of F. with toxicology and institutes of pharmacology with pharmacognostic ones (Materia medica). In America - Pharmacol. departments, laboratories, departments of Materia medica and Therapeutics. Japan has special pharmacol in all high fur boots. Institute of German type. In the USSR Pharmacol. institutes are located in the same building with institutes of other departments. Institutes and laboratories have demonstration collections of Pharmakol. and pharmacognostic material, drawings and tables prepared in accordance with the course being taught. Older institutes and laboratories have their own libraries. In the USSR, pharmacologists are not united into a separate society, but are members of the Union Society of Physiologists, Biochemists, Pharmacologists and Histologists, in which they take part in congresses, forming a separate section. Pharmacologists of the USSR also take part in regional congresses of physiologists, pharmacologists and biologists, convened in Povolya and very regularly in the south in the republics of Transcaucasia and the Caucasus; the last congress was in Erivan in October 1934. Soviet pharmacologists do not have a separate publication; in physiol. USSR magazine named after. Sechenov pharmacology has its own department. The teaching of medicine developed in most countries under the predominant influence of the German school and consists of a lecture course accompanied by a demonstration of the effect of drugs on animals (Austria, Switzerland, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Norway, the Baltic states, partly Italy, Japan); in other countries the French system of wedge, the study of medicines, is practiced; England, Italy and America switched to a mixed system of laboratory-clinical method. The USSR follows the model of the German school. The teaching of experimental medicine began in the sixties with Sokolovsky’s course in Kazan. Before that, medicinal science was taught at the department of “Medical substance science, pharmacy and medical literature" in accordance with pharmacognostics, the content of collections on Materia medica and consisted of a description of drugs from the pharmacognostic side and an indication of their therapeutic use. According to the university charter of 1863, two departments were created at the medical faculties instead of one: one. - “Pharmacognosy and Pharmacy”, the other - “Theoretical and Experimental Pharmacology” Since 1884, the department of F. was obliged to teach not only “pharmacology”, but also “formulation, toxicology and the study of mineral waters”; In the 2nd year, 6 hours per week for two semesters, and in the 3rd year, 6 hours per week, also for two semesters. They taught using the lecture method with demonstrations of experiments and preparations during the lecture. Practical classes in Physics were organized in exceptional cases (Likhachev, Boldyrev, Nikolaev). During the reorganization of all teaching in the USSR, the Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacognosy in 1923 was transferred to honey. faculties was liquidated, and the department of Physics was entrusted with the responsibility to include information on pharmacognosy and pharmaceuticals in the Physics course with recipes. chemistry necessary for the assimilation of medicines and the skillful administration of medicines. F. was given 5 hours a week to teach in both semesters of the 3rd year. Mandatory practical classes were introduced in 1926. Since the fall of 1934, 150 hours have been allocated for F. in the 3rd year in two semesters; According to the new plan, another 22 hours have been added, which should be considered sufficient for teaching F. By introducing mandatory practical classes for students in Physics, its teaching here compares favorably with that abroad. Lit.: B about l dbfp ev V., A short guide for practical classes in pharmacology, Kazan, 1913; Vershinin N., Pharmacology as the basis of therapy, Tomsk, 1933; Garkavi-Dandau D., A short guide to experimental pharmacology, Baku, 1927; Tsramepitsky M., General pharmacology, L.-M., 1931; about n e, Textbook of pharmacology, L.-M., 1935; K e sh n and A., Guide to pharmacology, vol. I-II, M., 1930-31; Kravkov N., Modern problems of pharmacology and materialism, St. Petersburg, 1903; aka, Fundamentals of Pharmacology, parts 1-2, D.-M., 1933; Lavrov D., Fundamentals of pharmacology and toxicology, Odessa, 1923; Lubu Shin A., Skvortsov V., Sobolev M. and Shishov I., A manual for practical classes in pharmacology with toxicology, M., 1933; Muller F., Theoretical and clinical pharmacology, Berlin, 1921; Pravdiv N., Experimental introduction to the study of pharmacology, M., 1926; Skvortsov V., Textbook of Pharmacology, M.-L., 1933; Soshestvensky N., Course of pharmacology and pharmacotherapy of domestic animals, parts 1-2, M.-L., 1930-31; Tif-no M., Pharmacological reviews, collection. 1-Pharmacology for 1928-29, M., 1932; Frobner E., Guide to Pharmacology, M., 1934; Handbuch der experimentellen Pharmakologie, hrsg. v. A. Heffter u. W. Heubner, B. I-III, V., 1923-29 (lit.); H a n d o u 8 k u R., Pharmakologie in ihrer modernen Problemstellungen, Dresden-Jjpz., 1931; Magnus It., Einfaches pharmakologisches Praktikum f. Medizlner, V., 1921; Meyer H.u. G o t-t li e b R., Experimented Pharmakologie, V. - Wien, 1925 (Russian publishing house - St. Petersburg, 1913); Poulsson E., Lehrbuch der Pharmakologie, Lpz., 1920; Tap peiner H.u. Schmie-deberg 0., Grundriss der Pharmakologie, Lpz., 1909. Periodicals, Russian Physiological Journal named after. Sechenova, L., since 1917; Archives internationa-les de pharmacodynamie, P., since 1898; Archiv fur experi-mcntelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, Lpz., since 1873; Bericnte iiber die gesamte Physiologie und experimentelle Pharmakologie, V., since 1920; Japanese journal ol medical sciences, Tokyo, since 1922; Journal of pharmacology and experimental therapeutics, Baltimore, since 1909. See also lit. to Art. Physiology. V. Nikolaev.