What is dogmatism in philosophy definition. Dogmatism: in philosophy. Dogmatism in science

DOGMATISM

Greek - opinion, doctrine, decision) - a style of thinking, which is characterized by a tendency to assertion without discussion, to use once and for all established concepts, schemes and formulas in the analysis of reality, without taking into account specific circumstances and changing conditions. Dogmatism is characterized by a fear of independence, a constant desire to support one’s reasoning with references to authority and tradition. The emergence of dogmatism is historically associated with the formation and development of religious doctrines, which required believers to unconditionally accept the main provisions of the doctrine (dogmas) and categorically prohibited their denial or free interpretation, which was considered by the church as heresy. In philosophy, dogmatism is usually understood not so much as a characteristic of a particular system of views, but as an attitude towards it, consisting in the rejection of any criticism, in the desire to preserve the main provisions and conclusions of this system unchanged at any cost. Philosophical dogmatism arises from the naive belief of ordinary common sense that human knowledge, using the simplest means that do not require special training (simple sensory perception and the elementary logic of everyday language), is capable of providing comprehension of the truth and providing a final solution to the most important and deepest problems facing in front of a person. Numerous mistakes and delusions caused by such a naive faith gave rise to the deepest disappointment in man’s ability to know the truth. This disappointment formed the basis for the formation of a style of thinking opposite to dogmatism - skepticism, which generally denies the possibility of knowing the truth. Overcoming the extremes of dogmatism and skepticism, which assert either the extreme simplicity and accessibility of comprehending “ultimate truths” or the absolute impossibility of knowing the truth, is achieved through the study of human cognitive abilities. The need for such a study, designed to answer questions about whether a person can know the truth at all and what are the limits of human knowledge, was first pointed out by I. Kant, whose method, in contrast to dogmatism and skepticism, was called “criticism.” In the process of analyzing various problems of real life, dogmatism does not contribute to understanding the true reasons for their occurrence through their comprehensive study in all their diverse connections with other problems (past and present), but comes down to imposing ready-made categories, formulas and logical schemes on living reality. Thus, it often gives rise to pseudo-problems and leads away from genuine problems that require solutions.

Eclecticism (from ancient Greek ἐκλέγω “I choose”) is a way of constructing a philosophical system by combining various positions borrowed from other philosophical systems. This term was introduced into use by the 2nd century Alexandrian philosopher Potamon, who is mentioned by Diogenes Laertius at the end of his introduction to the treatise “On the Life, Teachings and Sayings of Famous Philosophers.”

The eclectic trend, in the case when it approaches syncretism, that is, the unprincipled and unmethodical combination of opposing systems, marks the decline of philosophical creativity and appears in history, usually after a certain principle loses its strength and dominant position in the minds of people. After Plato and Aristotle, eclecticism gradually spreads until, finally, in Alexandrian philosophy it receives universal recognition. The same is noticeable in Wolff's philosophy in relation to Leibniz's philosophy. In the 19th century, Victor Cousin and Jouffroy were eclecticists, who tried to combine the principles of German idealism with the principles of English empiricism.

The criterion for determining the truth of principles that they try to combine is usually “common sense”. Although this trend in philosophy does not stand up to criticism, this does not mean that all eclecticism should be condemned. Every system must take into account firmly established facts and true propositions, no matter what school of philosophy they belong to. This was well expressed by Leibniz, who argued that “all systems of philosophy are right in what they affirm, erring only in what they deny.” Expressing the desire to take into account all possible directions and, through criticism, to find the grain of truth in them, eclecticism, therefore, can mean a requirement for a broad outlook in justifying one’s own system.

Metaphysics

(from the Greek metaphysic - that which comes after physics) - the science of supersensible principles and principles of being. In the history of philosophy, philosophy most often means genuine philosophy. The term "M." first introduced by Andronikos of Rhodes, a systematizer of Aristotle’s works, who united under this name all his works that went beyond the scope of the natural scientific works of antiquity. thinker.

Throughout the history of philosophy, mathematics has either been rejected as a false teaching that goes beyond the scope of experience, or has been exalted as the highest achievement of the human mind. I. Kant criticized the M. who preceded him for her speculativeness, for the fact that she dealt with meaningfully limited spheres and at the same time did not know the correct way to understand these spheres; she only postulated God, the immortality of the soul, the integrity of the world, naively believing that they can be comprehended in the same way as objects of reality are comprehended. Kant believed that metaphysics was possible as systematic knowledge, but he himself limited himself to only analyzing the contradictions into which thought falls when trying to resolve basic metaphysical problems. Kant introduced the distinction between the M. of nature and the M. of morals; in the latter, the contradictions of pure reason find practical resolution. He also distinguished between mathematics and natural science, showing the fundamental difference between the subjects of these disciplines.

Nevertheless, in all areas of knowledge - in the knowledge of man, history, nature - we are faced with metaphysical problems, everywhere we run into something that is inaccessible to the human mind, a certain insoluble residue. These problems are not an arbitrary product of human curiosity, not historical ballast of thought, but the very eternal mystery of the world, rooted in its states and properties. Metaphysical questions are scattered across all areas; they everywhere form the basis of certain areas of philosophy. “By metaphysics,” wrote A. Schopenhauer, “I understand imaginary knowledge that goes beyond the limits of possible experience, that is, beyond the limits of the nature or given phenomenon of objects, goes in order to give one or another explanation regarding what causes this world or this nature in one sense or another; or, to put it simply, an explanation of what hides behind nature and gives it the possibility of life and existence." Any M. speaks of a completely different world order, of the order of things-in-themselves, where all the laws of this world of phenomena lose their meaning. Schopenhauer believes that there is a certain, always relevant metaphysical need of man, that physics, i.e. an attempt at a natural study of phenomena always rests on M., no matter how contemptuous the first may be towards the second, for physical knowledge can never reach the initial link of the entire chain of causes and effects to be explained. Any effective causes are based on something completely inexplicable - on the original properties of objects and the forces of nature found in them. Philosophy, which tries to limit itself to physics and rejects medicine as imaginary knowledge (primarily materialism), is, according to Schopenhauer, the favorite philosophy of barbers and apothecary students. In fact, the more successfully physics develops, the more urgent the need for mathematics arises; the more fully and accurately the essence of individual things is explored, the more any research needs to explain the general and the whole.

There is another type of interpretation of M., which originates from F. Nietzsche and is most clearly and consistently expressed by M. Heidegger. M., according to Nietzsche, marked the beginning of a false doubling of the world, its division into the true world and the false world, the supersensible world and the sensory world. From here God arises as an ontology and morality, imposing certain, above-established rules on man, and the doctrine of a sharp opposition between subject and object arises. M. suppresses human freedom, forces him to submit to invisible idols - hence, sooner or later, the onset of nihilism, disbelief in eternal values, and the fatigue of European humanity. The “true world” eventually loses its attractiveness, it does not save, it does not oblige anyone to anything, the “true world” and God become useless ideas that must be abolished. For Heidegger, M. is not a philosopher. teaching and not some separate discipline of philosophy, but an attitude towards existence as a whole, the truth about the total existence, i.e. this or that interpretation on top of the knowledge of certain moments, types, classes, everything that exists as such. A metaphysical judgment cannot be consistently deduced from observation and knowledge of concrete reality; it is based on the decision of man as a free being. Human communities always arise around one answer or another to the metaphysical question: why is there existence? The philosophy of Nietzsche brings with it, according to Heidegger, the completion of M., because it exposes all previously given answers to the question of the meaning of existence as unfounded, speculating in emptiness and caused by the naivety of human ideas about oneself. M. is the space of historical accomplishment, the space in which it becomes fate that the supersensible world, ideas, God, moral laws, the authority of reason, progress, the happiness of the majority, culture, civilization lose their inherent power of creation and begin to become insignificant. M. must be overcome, we need to stop looking at our world as a passageway and some kind of otherworldly, we need to look for the real existential foundations of human existence.

What thoughts does a person operate with? This leads to the development of certain character qualities. A pattern of thinking has become common, when a person operates with concepts that he has adopted from the world around him and cannot be verified or doubted..

Dogmatism comes from the ancient Greek language and denotes a way of thinking that operates and relies exclusively on dogmas - concepts that a person does not criticize and doubt, considers to be eternal provisions.

In dogmatism, a person does not think critically in relation to the dogmas with which he operates. He does not criticize them, does not test them, does not give in to doubts. He blindly believes in authorities. Has a conservative mindset when he does not want to accept new information that contradicts his beliefs.

Dogmatism is often applied in philosophy, religion and politics:

• In religion, a person must blindly believe in what is told to him. He must believe in dogmas and follow them blindly.
• In philosophy, dogmatism is a direction of teaching or followers. It arises when a person begins to consider some belief to be true and does not subject it to change or verification by evidence. Opposite directions are criticism and skepticism. In philosophy, dogmatism is a one-sided judgment that requires blind faith and submission.
• In politics, dogmatism is used as a cliché concept that is not subject to change by an individual.

At the everyday level, many people are dogmatic - blindly believing in certain beliefs and being unable to change them, even if the world and those around them provide real evidence of the existence of something else.

What is dogmatism?

What is dogmatism? This concept implies a way of thinking in which a fact, belief, formulation is perceived as obvious and is not subject to doubt. A person operates with outdated data, ignoring everything new and changing. He does not criticize what he learns and blindly believes in certain dogmas. The dogmatic concept excludes the connection of human thinking with reality, avoids everything creative, ignores anything new and critical thinking. A person must accept the dogma as it appears and believe in it.

The concept of dogmatism originates in Ancient Greece, where the philosophers Pyrrho and Zeno perceived any philosophy as dogmatic. Today, this concept implies the uncritical perception of certain dogmas as true. Initially, dogmatism was used only in religion, where a person must believe in all religious teachings about God, his unity, infallibility and omnipotence.

Dogmatism flourished exclusively in religion, where every believer must believe the scriptures, interpret ideas unambiguously, without questioning them. Any dissent was considered heresy.

According to dictionaries, dogmatism is a method of thinking in which certain provisions are transformed into ossified conclusions that do not take into account changes in living conditions and are not subject to criticism and study by science. Dogma is perceived as an absolute. Its opposite is dialectics, which perceives all the diversity of circumstances and living conditions, the variability of nature, transformations and other changes.

Where blind faith becomes important, dogmatism flourishes. This direction is important in religion and politics. People must be blind in their beliefs to support those at the forefront of the movement. Otherwise, the movement will disintegrate, people will disperse and will not be able to reinforce the dogmas of those who want to control the crowd.

Dogmatism in science

Dogmatism in science is seen as a necessity, when certain conclusions and views should not be subject to criticism and doubt. The epistemological point of view defines dogmatism as an unconscious ignorance of changes and dynamics of development, an exaggerated perception of the true assertion, and avoidance of logical explanation and verification.

Psychology views dogmatism as the tendency of the brain to remain inert - it will quickly perceive an idea rather than seek to explain it. This leads to stereotypical thinking and conservatism, when it is better to preserve the past (understandable and predictable) rather than lean towards the unknown and creative present and future.

Sociology views dogmatism as the desire to maintain the current state of affairs, to preserve an individual or group status that has already been acquired. Dogmatism is opposed to thinking in which facts and conclusions are drawn on the specificity of truth, conditions of formation, goals, place and time of applicability, its functioning within a certain framework.

Dogmatism is inherent in the conservative mind, which is more inclined to believe in the stability of moral and universal ideas. He doesn't question them. Here a perversion of morality occurs when, for example, good becomes evil if a good deed led to a crime and was not punished. Any changes and alterations, conditions and circumstances are completely excluded here. This type of thinking is ideal in circles where blind faith is required, such as religion.

Various crises that occur in the life of any person are based on dogmatic thinking. A person is faced with situations or circumstances that do not fit into the norms and rules he has accepted. Psychologists note that the cause of dogmatic thinking is opportunism and unprofessionalism.

Dogmatism forms a certain quality of character in a person (conservatism), in which he becomes prone to assertion without discussion, using the concepts given once and for all, and ignoring all changing circumstances and living conditions.

A person is forced to accept any information as true, without subjecting it to analysis, without considering it in various circumstances. This is a belief that has been implanted in the head and which the person may not have tested in any way. Examples of dogmas include:

1. "Money gives power."
2. “There are no decent men.”
3. “All women are fools.”
4. “Fate is predetermined”, etc.

Dogmatism is based on ignorance and ignorance. In order to somehow survive in the world, a person is ready to accept any idea as truth, and then build on it when making decisions and taking actions.

Dogmatism presupposes fear and avoidance of independent thinking, accepted traditions and authorities. Examples of such thinking can be found everywhere, for example, in the expression “A mother always wants the best for her child.” This does not take into account various circumstances and situations where mothers simply physically and mentally destroyed their own children and made them sick.

Dogmatism thrives where people need to be given some knowledge that they will accept as true. A person does not know something, so he is ready to receive information. He has neither the time, nor the desire, nor the ability to check it. He does not subject the information to criticism and doubt, and does not check its truth. He simply believes in it, makes it his conviction. As a result, a person begins to think and act, to live on the basis of this dogma.

Dogmatism in philosophy

Dogmatism in philosophy is a direction in teaching where certain information is taken and perceived as true without preliminary analysis and without the possibility of changing it.

Zeno and Pyrrho perceived all philosophy as dogmatic. However, other philosophers had a different attitude towards dogmatism:

1. I. Kant considered dogmatism a way of knowledge in which new information does not explore conditions and possibilities.
2. Hegel perceived dogmatism as abstract thinking.

Dogmatism in philosophy is a limitation of perception and credulity in the fact that there is no need to have basic knowledge in order to know the truth and cope with complex problems. Such a naive faith entails mistakes and illusions, which leads to only one thing - disappointment of a person.

The opposite of dogmatism is skepticism - thinking that denies any possibility of comprehending the truth. Pyrrho and Zeno were skeptics. They designated as dogmatists everyone who made some information reliable and true, since they questioned everything and made it impossible to comprehend the truth.

Dogmatism and skepticism, according to Kant, are diametrically opposed directions that have one common feature - one-sidedness. None of the directions can help a person develop thinking. That is why he made critical thinking an intermediate link, a golden mean.

Dogmatism does not solve problems because there is no analysis of the situations and circumstances in the past and present that led to their occurrence. Reasoning in stereotypes and ready-made ideas can only lead to aggravation of the problem, its complication, and a departure from reality.

Many may believe that dogmatic thinking is correct because it allows one to observe faith, traditions and other tenets. However, where there is dogmatism, there is a complete lack of connection with reality, progress, growth and development. It’s as if a person gets stuck in a certain time, ceasing to improve.

Dogmatism prevents any growth. It’s the same as if a child decides that he has already been formed and needs to remain the way he was already born: he will not learn to walk, talk, read, etc. Dogmatism is associated with such concepts as conservatism and authority, since people often refer to some authorities when they try to defend their blind faith and refute any new trend.

A dogmatist has no knowledge. He just blindly believes. His beliefs are often unrelated and sometimes even contradictory. For example, a believer who believes in the value of life will go to war with everyone who does not believe, killing them.

The world around us seems dangerous and formidable to a dogmatist. In search of protection, a person is ready to submit to authorities who will speak of certain ideas, often divorced from reality, irrational and simplified. What matters here is not the value and veracity of the information itself, but who it comes from. A person will unconditionally believe in someone whom he considers his authority, believing in any nonsense and recklessness that comes from his mouth.

Bottom line

Dogmatism is a certain, limited world in which a person lives, while trying to survive in the real world. Many sufferings, problems and unresolved traumas are the result of conservative thinking. The result is a person’s inability to live fully, solve any problems, achieve any goals.

Dogmatism may not affect life expectancy, since there will always be groups (sects) that will agree to accept into their ranks a helpless, suggestible and uncritically thinking person who blindly believes and does everything that authorities tell him.

Dogmatism- this is the concept of human thinking, which configures him to accept concepts, facts, formulations from the position of dogma, operating with the evidence of what is being discussed, outdated data, without taking into account the new and changing. The dogmatic concept has no desire to perceive and learn the new, scientifically predetermined, avoids creative development, is the opposite of critical perception, and is generally detached from reality.

The concept of dogmatism originates in Ancient Greece, thanks to the philosophers Zeno and Pyrrho, who considered all philosophy dogmatic.

What is dogmatism?

The concept of dogma speaks of the necessity of something to be initially true, without criticism, without scientific study or justification, mainly relying on faith in religion or authority. Initially, this concept appeared in the context of religious understanding: in Christianity, the true acceptance of the uniqueness of God, his infallibility and omnipotence; In Judaism, the idea of ​​reincarnation and karma is undeniable.

Dogmatism arose simultaneously with the development of religious concepts that called on believers to unconditionally accept all religious doctrines as truth; free interpretation of proposed religious dogmas was categorically prohibited and was considered heresy in the eyes of the church.

Dogmatism in science is considered not so much as a certain concept of views, its characteristics and features, but as the need to preserve these views and conclusions in a stable, unchanged form, without subjecting them to criticism. From an epistemological point of view, the concept of dogmatism arose from an unconscious ignorance of changes and the dynamics of development, an exaggerated perception of the truth of what was asserted, and avoidance of verification and logical explanation.

The psychological roots of the dogmatic concept lie in the fact that the brain is inert, it is easier for it to accept the truth than to explain it. There is a tendency towards stereotyping, a predisposition towards a conservative past rather than towards a creative and unknown present and future.

On the social side, dogmatism manifests itself in the desire to preserve the current state of affairs, to leave individual or group status intact. Dogmatism is opposed to thinking based on the fact of the concreteness of truth, its certainty within the framework of functioning, conditions of formation, goals, time and place of applicability.

Dogmatic thinking from its principled position distorts the essence of the original moral positions, since it automatically transfers the functions of the moral principle inherent in a given situation to other situations, as a result of which its meaning is lost, perhaps turning into its opposite. For example, good is perceived as evil if it is the cause of impunity for crimes.

In fact, dogmatic thinking is inherent in the conservative moral consciousness of the category of humanity, which is committed to the idea of ​​absolutism: the existence of constantly operating moral and universal principles that are against social progress. An example of this is religious dogmatism, the essence of which is a firm affirmation of the grace of the moral principles of faith, revelation, while simultaneously ignoring the argument of reason, critical thinking, and the development of science. Dogmatism often manifests itself through fanaticism or formalism. In the dogmatic study of theoretical, historical, and political problems, factors of time and place are not taken into account.

The cause of crisis moments in the economy, spiritual and social spheres can be dogmatism. That which does not correspond to the norms, coherent canons and dogmas of our understanding and perception is considered suspicious and subject to doubt. The origins of such thinking are unprofessionalism and opportunism.

Dogmatism in philosophy

Dogmatism in science and philosophy is assessed by the characteristics of philosophical theories or their varieties. A doctrine is considered dogmatic if it chooses some explanation as the truth without preliminary analysis, without allowing changes.

The concept of dogmatism after Zeno and Perron was studied by many thinkers. The philosopher I. Kant defined it not as all philosophy as a whole, but as some knowledge not focused on the study of its conditions and possibilities. Hegel, one of the creators of dialectical philosophy, understood dogmatism as abstract thinking.

Philosophical dogmatism stems from a limited perception and credulity in the fact that without special preparation with elementary knowledge, he can comprehend the truth and solve the most difficult problems that confront him. This approach, determined by naive faith, was predicted to lead to many mistakes and led a person to deep disappointment in his ability to know. As a result of such disappointment, a diametrically opposite style of thinking arose - skepticism (denial of any possibility of knowing the truth). It is also called relativism in today's culture. Perron and Zeno called all philosophers who tried to assert their conclusions as reliable as dogmatists; they contrasted this with doubt and the unreality in principle of knowing the truth.

The solution to these two diametrical positions was to study the limits of human knowledge. This view was called criticism by Kant. He asserted that since the period of Aristotle, not a single idea from logic and psychology had been substantiated by the dogmatic thinking of metaphysical science, and also asserted that skepticism is as one-sided as dogmatism. Kant criticized the philosophical teaching from Descartes to Wolff, calling it dogmatic. Criticizing dogmatic thinking, Kant stated that he could not comprehend things and phenomena simply because they exist. Neither dogmatism nor skepticism teach anything; moreover, the concept of dogmatism essentially becomes skepticism due to its one-sidedness.

Dogmatism cannot understand the real causes of real problems without studying them from the perspective of the present and the past, in conjunction with various problems, but simply by imposing ready-made ideas, postulates, dogmas, and logical conclusions on an existing fact. This often provokes the emergence of false problems, which delays or makes it difficult to solve real problem situations.

G. Hegel stood between dogmatism and skepticism with his dialectical method. Dialectism differs from dogmatism in that it does not contain one-sided conclusions. Dogmatists always draw others from one conclusion, ignoring the facts of real life. Marxist philosophy has become consistently “anti-dogmatic,” which, while explaining reality, serves to change it. This understanding of philosophical reality excludes dogmatism.

Dogmatism in science hinders its further progress, since it is guided by outdated or one-sided theories, frankly incorrect concepts. Thus, the dogmatic thinking of society turned tragically for G. Bruno, Galileo, and the struggle against Darwin’s evolutionary theory continued for a long time. Dogmatism in science, politics, and society is a circumstance that hinders development.

J. Fichte (1762-1814) criticizes Kant “from the right” for recognizing the “thing in itself” and for dogmatism (materialism). The essence of his criticism is as follows.

"Thing in itself” is nothing. Kant allows it to explain our experience, but he himself explains it “in a different way,” with the help of a priori forms. Thus, he denies the necessity of the existence of that on which his entire system is built. Therefore, the “thing in itself” is a “pure chimera”, which “there is no reason to admit.” You just have to throw it away. With its elimination, all “dogmatic knowledge” will collapse.

Kant's dogmatism. By recognizing the “thing in itself,” we recognize that it determines our ideas about the world and, accordingly, our actions in this world. But if this is so, then we are not free. We must submit to the world of things and accept it as it is. This is dogmatism. Dogmatism leads to materialism and fatalism, i.e. to the denial of freedom. Of course, dogmatism does not deny the existence of freedom, “for this would be contrary to reason. But with his initial thesis he refutes the very fact of the existence of freedom.” Dogmatism “completely denies the independence of the I” and makes it “a simple product of a thing.”

The dispute between the idealist and the dogmatist is about “whether the independence of a thing should be sacrificed to the independence of the I, or, conversely, the independence of the I to the independence of the thing.” Fichte chooses the freedom and independence of the Self, “sacrificing” the thing. He does this because dogmatism (materialism) can only be refuted “from the postulate of freedom and independence of the Self.” This postulate became the basis of Fichte's philosophy.

The problem of freedom is the main one in Fichte's philosophy . From the recognition of freedom, its main content is derived and developed - the doctrine of the active, active nature of man. Man was born “not for idle introspection and self-reflection and not for self-pleasure with his pious feelings,” he was born for activity. “Act! Act! Act! “That’s why we exist.” But only a free person can act. For Fichte, freedom is not subjective arbitrariness; freedom is a person’s voluntary adherence to moral laws.

basis Fichte's philosophy is "absolute self" or absolute subject . This “absolute Self” has endless, active activity that creates the whole world, including the individual empirical Self.

Hence the main difference between Fichte's philosophy and Kant's philosophy. For Kant, the knowing subject actively participates in the knowledge of the world. In Fichte, the knowing subject freely and actively creates the world around him. For Kant, the source of our knowledge is the objective world; for Fichte, the source of our knowledge is “intellectual intuition.”

The philosophy of J. Fichte is largely connected with the doctrine of activity, considered as an independent principle that has an ontologically primary character. The only substance in this case is the subject, the I, pure activity. The highest principle of activity is the moral law. The most important issue here is the question of freedom. In his doctrine of cognition, Fichte was one of the first among philosophers to attempt to study the problem of the unconscious.

In the work of F. Schelling, a special place is occupied by the problems of the philosophy of freedom and the philosophy of art. One of the main epistemological problems for Schelling is the problem of the contradiction between the theoretical (unconscious, in his understanding) and the practical (conscious). Schelling sees the resolution of this contradiction in the highest form of creativity - in art.

The problem of self-affirmation of freedom in Schelling is solved by separating it from the universal principle (God), which itself is the beginning of evil. As a result of this, Schelling believes, a person should strive to reunite with God. This is the hidden meaning of history.

Hegel (1770-1831). For G. Hegel, the spiritual culture of humanity appears in its natural development as a gradual revelation of the creative forces of the “world mind”. The spiritual development of an individual reproduces the stages of self-knowledge of the “world spirit”, starting from the moment of naming sense-data “things” and ending with “absolute knowledge” - knowledge of the forms and laws that govern the entire process of spiritual development from within. In Hegel, the process of cognition is transformed into self-knowledge of absolute reason (ideas), which comprehends its own content in the world. Therefore, the development of reality for him appears as a logical-rational process in which the dialectic of concepts dominates the dialectic of things.

Hegel's undoubted merit is the reform of logic, the theory of knowledge, the doctrine of the world, the categories of philosophy, the ideas of which are concentrated in three books under the general title “Science of Logic”.

The starting point of Hegel's philosophy is the identity of being and thinking. This means that being and thinking are one and the same thing, only existing in different forms. What is the logic of the philosophy of identity? It is impossible to derive existence from human consciousness, since it is necessary to explain the emergence of man himself and his consciousness. It is also impossible to derive consciousness from matter, since it is impossible to explain how the extended and inanimate (matter) can give rise to the non-extended and living (thought). Consequently, it was necessary to find such a conceivable fundamental principle that would contain the objective and the subjective, from which it would be possible to derive both being and thinking, thereby proving the unity of the world and the inextricable relationship between being and thinking. The Absolute Idea or the World Spirit became such a conceivable fundamental principle for Hegel.

Any idea, even Absolute - This thought . The mode of existence of thought is the process of thinking. The absolute idea can only think about itself, since nothing else exists yet. The process of cognition of the Absolute Idea of ​​oneself is a process of self-knowledge. It gives the desired conceivable principle, containing both the objective (the object of thought) and the subjective (the subject of thinking), gives the unity of the objective (what is thought about) and the subjective (the process of thinking itself). Thus Hegel finds a conceivable fundamental principle, from which he then deduces both being and thinking.

Thus, Hegel solves the problem posed by Kant idealistically. He transforms material being (nature and society) into conceivable being, into the being of thought.

What was fundamentally new with Hegel was that he was looking not just for a fundamental principle, the substance of the world, but for such a fundamental principle that would explain the internal reasons for the development of the world. Hegel finds this internal reason in the fact that for him substance is at the same time a subject. Hence the key position of Hegel’s philosophy: “the whole point is to understand and express the true not only as a substance, but to the same extent as a subject.” Hegel sees such a substance as the subject in the Absolute Idea, or, more clearly, in the World Spirit. For Hegel, substance is at the same time a subject that knows itself as a substance. Hence the rational meaning of Hegel's philosophy. If the substance that Hegel explores is nothing more than the essence of real nature and real history, then Hegel, exploring the absolute idea, explores real reality itself. This is the true value of Hegel's philosophy. And since nature and history are the same “objectified” thought, it is clear that our mind is quite capable of cognizing them as its content. Hence Hegel's belief in the infinite possibilities of the human mind. Hence the criticism of agnosticism.

The process of self-knowledge of the Absolute Idea of ​​itself includes two moments:

a) the process of acquiring knowledge (dialectical method);

b) and the knowledge itself obtained as a result of this knowledge (metaphysical system). Here the main contradiction in Hegel's philosophy arises - the contradiction between the dialectical method and the metaphysical system.

On the one hand, dialectics proves the necessary and endless nature of the development process, and, consequently, the process of cognition. On the other hand, the system requires the process of cognition to be completed as soon as the process of self-knowledge of the Absolute Idea of ​​itself has ended. She simply has nothing more to learn. Since the process of self-knowledge ends in Hegel’s philosophy, then, consequently, the entire process of human knowledge ends with this philosophy. As a result, the knowledge gained in Hegel's philosophy becomes absolute and final. The method comes into conflict with the system.

This is a contradiction to any philosophy that explains the world from consciousness. Whatever this consciousness may be, its content consists only of the knowledge that humanity has at the moment. And as soon as they are exhausted, the process of cognition from consciousness is completed.

Hegel's philosophy is a classic version of rationalist philosophy. Hegel wants to make philosophy a science. Philosophical knowledge must be understandable to everyone, knowledge suitable for study and transmission to others. Philosophical knowledge should be the same as any other scientific knowledge. His philosophy is directed against those who argue “that the absolute should not be understood, but felt and contemplated, that research should be guided not by its concept, but by feeling and contemplation.” This kind of philosopher considers themselves the chosen ones, “to whom God gives wisdom in a dream; but everything that they actually receive and give birth to in a dream belongs only to the realm of dreams.” Nowadays, these words sound more than relevant.

Thus, if philosophy wants to provide knowledge, it must follow the same path as science. In a way “open to all and equally constructed for all.” The path leading to rational knowledge. But intelligent knowledge can only be acquired through reason, and not through “ecstasy, reveries, and dreaming.” This is rational knowledge that Hegel strives to obtain, relying on reason.

The absolute idea carries out its self-knowledge in three forms, which are reflected in the three parts of Hegel’s philosophy: logic, philosophy of nature and philosophy of Spirit.

Logics. According to Hegel, logic is “the science of the idea in itself and for itself.” Here the absolute idea recognizes itself as pure thought. Logic provides a deep and comprehensive analysis of the process of cognition. This part of Hegel's philosophy is universal in nature and is of the greatest interest.

Philosophy of nature is “the science of the idea in its otherness.” Here the absolute idea cognizes itself in the form of “other being,” that is, in the form of nature. Thus, nature is the same idea (thought), only in “objectified form.” This is the identity of being and thinking. The forms of natural existence of the absolute idea are considered in mechanics, physics and organics.

Philosophy of spirit is the third stage of self-knowledge of the absolute idea. It is associated with the emergence of man and society. The absolute idea knows itself with the help of man. The philosophy of spirit consists of three parts.

1. Subjective spirit. The process of individual human development is considered here. An analysis of this process shows that it is based on an objective spirit.

2. Objective spirit. It includes morality and law. Morality, according to Hegel, gives rise to law, family and state.

3. Absolute spirit. Here the spirit is distracted from everything inert, material and recognizes itself as a pure “idea”, as a pure “spirit”.

This knowledge is carried out in three forms - in the form of art, religion And philosophy.

Art is the lowest form of knowledge of the absolute spirit. It occurs in a sensory-objective form and is sensory knowledge.

A higher form of knowledge of the absolute spirit is religion. It provides sensory-figurative knowledge and, therefore, has the right to exist along with science.

The highest form of knowledge of the absolute spirit is philosophy.

With the help of art and religion, the absolute idea cognizes itself in sensuous forms. This is necessary, but not sufficient. She strives to know her very essence. Since its essence lies in the fact that it is thought, then its knowledge is completed in the science that deals with thinking, that is, in philosophy, namely in the philosophy of Hegel. This is where the process of self-knowledge of the absolute idea ends. The process of self-knowledge of the absolute idea has ended, and the process of cognition in general has ended.

The historical significance of Hegel's philosophy lies in the development of the dialectical method of knowledge and the dialectical way of thinking. For the first time, history appeared as a single, interconnected, necessary process of development of nature, society and thinking. From that time on, the idea of ​​the internal necessity of historical development became the central idea of ​​European philosophy. True, this idea also gave rise to an intractable problem. If the historical process has a necessary character, then how can this necessity be combined with the free activity of people?

A dialectical analysis of the process of cognition has shown that the process of cognition, the process of obtaining truth, is precisely a process that, by its very nature, does not and cannot have an end. Consequently, the creation of a complete, absolute philosophy is impossible in principle. The inevitable conclusion followed from this: philosophy must look for new foundations and new ways of development.

Hegel believed that the development of nature and society occurs thanks to the self-knowledge of the Absolute Idea. In his philosophy, self-knowledge was completed, therefore history had to end. However, the story continued, and quite violently. It became clear that the original thesis of Hegel's philosophy was incorrect. Turning to materialism, to the study of real nature and history became inevitable.

After Hegel, philosophy took the path of developing separate, often little related to each other, problems. The age of classical philosophy is ending.

1. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel(1770 - 1831) - professor at Heidelberg and then Berlin universities, was one of the most authoritative philosophers of his time both in Germany and in Europe, a prominent representative of German classical idealism.

Hegel’s main merit to philosophy lies in the fact that he put forward and developed in detail:

The theory of objective idealism (the core concept of which is the absolute idea - the World Spirit);

Dialectics as a universal philosophical method.

Hegel's most important philosophical works include:

"Phenomenology of Spirit";

"Science of Logic";

"Philosophy of Law".

2. The main idea of ​​ontology (the doctrine of being) of Hegel - identification of being and thinking. As a result of this identification, Hegel derives a special philosophical concept - the absolute idea.

Absolute idea- This:

the only true reality that exists;

The root cause of the entire surrounding world, its objects and phenomena;

A world spirit with self-awareness and the ability to create.

The next key ontological concept of Hegel's philosophy is alienation.

The absolute spirit, about which nothing definite can be said, alienates itself in the form of:

The surrounding world;

Nature;

Human;

And then, after alienation through human thinking and activity, the natural course of history returns to itself again: that is, the cycle of the Absolute spirit occurs according to the scheme: World (Absolute) spirit - alienation - the surrounding world and man - human thinking and activity - realization by the spirit of itself yourself through human thinking and activity - the return of the Absolute spirit to itself. The alienation itself includes:

Creation of matter from air;

Complex relationships between an object (the surrounding world) and a subject (a person) - through human activity, the World Spirit objectifies itself;

Distortion, a person’s misunderstanding of the world around them.

Human plays a special role in Hegel’s ontology (being). He - bearer of an absolute idea. The consciousness of each person is a particle of the World Spirit. It is in man that the abstract and impersonal world spirit acquires will, personality, character, individuality. Thus, man is the “ultimate spirit” of the World Spirit.

Through man the World Spirit:

Manifests itself in the form of words, speech, language, gestures;

Moves purposefully and naturally - actions, human actions, the course of history;

Knows oneself through human cognitive activity;

Creates - in the form of the results of material and spiritual culture created by man.

3. Hegel’s historical service to philosophy lies in the fact that he was the first to clearly formulate the concept of dialectics.

Dialectics, according to Hegel, is the fundamental law of the development and existence of the World Spirit and the surrounding world created by it. The meaning of dialectics is that:

everything - the World Spirit, the “ultimate spirit” - man, objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, processes - contains opposite principles (for example, day and night, heat and cold, youth and old age, wealth and poverty, black and white, war and peace, etc.);

These principles (sides of a single being and the World Spirit) are in conflict with each other, but, at the same time, they are united in essence and interact;

The unity and struggle of opposites is the basis for the development and existence of everything in the world (that is, the basis for universal existence and development).

Development comes from the abstract to the concrete and has the following mechanism:

there is a certain thesis(statement, form of being);

This thesis is always antithesis- its opposite;

As a result of the interaction of two opposing theses, we get synthesis- a new statement, which, in turn, becomes a thesis, but at a higher level of development;

This process happens again and again, and each time, as a result of the synthesis of opposing theses, a thesis of a higher and higher level is formed.

For example:

As the very first thesis, from which universal development begins, Hegel singles out the thesis of “being” (that is, that which exists). Its antithesis is “non-existence” (“absolute nothingness”). Being and non-being provide a synthesis - “becoming”, which is a new thesis. Further development continues in an ascending line according to the indicated scheme.

According to Hegel, contradiction is not evil, but good. It is contradictions that are the driving force of progress. Without contradictions, their unity and struggle, development is impossible.

4. In his research, Hegel seeks to understand:

Philosophy of nature;

Philosophy of spirit;

Philosophy of history;

And that means their essence.

Nature (the world around us) Hegel understands how otherness of ideas(that is, the antithesis of an idea, another form of existence of an idea). Spirit, according to Hegel, has three varieties:

Subjective spirit;

Objective spirit;

Absolute spirit.

Subjective Spirit- soul, consciousness of an individual person (the so-called “spirit for itself”).

Objective Spirit- the next level of spirit, “the spirit of society as a whole.” The expression of the objects of the new spirit is law - the order of relationships between people, given from above, originally existing as an idea (since freedom is inherent in man himself). Law is the realized idea of ​​freedom. Along with law, other expressions of the objective spirit are morality, civil society, and the state.

Absolute Spirit- the highest manifestation of the spirit, the eternally valid truth. The expressions of the Absolute Spirit are:

Art;

Religion;

Philosophy.

Art- direct reflection by a person of an absolute idea. Among people, according to Hegel, only talented and brilliant people can “see” and reflect the absolute idea; because of this, they are creators of art.

Religion- the antithesis of art. If art is an absolute idea, “seen” by brilliant people, then religion is an absolute idea, revealed to man by God in the form of revelation.

Philosophy- a synthesis of art and religion, the highest level of development and understanding of the absolute idea. This is knowledge given by God and at the same time understood by brilliant people - philosophers. Philosophy is the complete disclosure of all truths, the Absolute Spirit’s knowledge of itself (“the world captured by thought” - according to Hegel), the connection of the beginning of the absolute idea with its end, the highest knowledge.

According to Hegel, the subject of philosophy should be broader than traditionally accepted and should include:

philosophy of nature;

Anthropology;

Psychology;

Philosophy of the state;

Philosophy of civil society;

Philosophy of law;

Philosophy of history;

Dialectics - as the truth of universal laws and principles. Story, according to Hegel, the process of self-realization of the Absolute

spirit. Since the Absolute Spirit includes the idea of ​​freedom, all history is a process of man gaining more and more freedom. In this regard, Hegel divides the entire history of mankind into three great eras:

Eastern;

Antique-medieval;

German.

Eastern era(the era of Ancient Egypt, China, etc.) - a period of history when in society only one person is aware of himself, enjoys freedom and all the benefits of life - the pharaoh, the Chinese emperor, etc., and everyone else is his slaves and servants.

Antique-medieval era- a period when a group of people began to recognize themselves (the head of state, entourage, military leaders, aristocracy, feudal lords), but the bulk of them were suppressed and not free, they depended on the “elite” and served them.

Germanic era- an era contemporary to Hegel, when everyone is self-aware and free.

5. You can also highlight the following Hegel's socio-political views:

the state is the form of existence of God in the world (in its strength and “capabilities” God incarnate);

Law is the actual existence (embodiment) of freedom;

General interests are higher than private ones, and an individual, his interests can be sacrificed to the common good;

Wealth and poverty are natural and inevitable, this is a given reality that must be put up with;

Contradictions and conflicts in society are not evil, but good, the engine of progress;

contradictions and conflicts between states, wars are the engine of progress on a world-historical scale;

“eternal peace” will lead to decay and moral decay; regular wars, on the contrary, purify the spirit of a nation. One of Hegel’s most important philosophical conclusions about being and consciousness is that there is no contradiction between being (matter) and idea (consciousness, mind). Reason, consciousness, idea have being, and being has consciousness. Everything that is reasonable is real, and everything that is real is reasonable.

In Hegelian philosophy, the new European paradigm reaches its limit. It seems that Hegel’s philosophy has already said everything. Hegel himself firmly believed in this illusion. He found the further development of philosophy impossible. But Hegel’s contemporaries already saw insurmountable flaws, miscalculations and utopian intentions in his system (the German romantics especially noticed this: Novalis, the Schlegel brothers, Schelling). What are these miscalculations? Here are the most typical:

1. System-creation syndrome, the belief that purely absolute truth can be expressed in the constructions of an individual thinker. The requirement for systematic, comprehensive knowledge was elevated to law, to the rule of philosophizing. From here dogmatism classical thinking. Classical philosophers are distrustful and aggressive towards everything that contradicts their system and does not fit into it (in Hegel’s texts you could read a lot of arrogant and mocking attacks against those who think differently). The classical philosophers did not want to understand each other; everyone wants everyone to understand him alone. In other words, the classics did not master, did not experience the idea of ​​​​the incommensurability of infinite truth with the real, finite possibilities of human consciousness.

2. Reducing philosophizing to a rational-cognitive procedure of thinking. The organ of philosophy in the classics is not the soul, but the mind. The spiritual multidimensionality of the subject is reduced to one mental dimension. Will, feelings, emotions, passions are supplanted by the logic of thought. Hence the assessment given by Vl. Solovyov, new European philosophy: this is the “philosophy of abstract reason” (in the work “The Crisis of Western Philosophy”). Along with the loss of a concrete, living individual, philosophy loses its connection with life, with the sphere of everyday existence. From the love of wisdom, from the art of living, it turns into the art of reflection. It is dominated by professional jargon, understandable only to the initiated. The classics did not notice that man and the world are no more rational than irrational (it gave nothing in return for the religion it surpassed).

3. New European philosophy, starting with Descartes, develops a method focusing on external (in relation to philosophy) models, in particular, on accurate knowledge of the natural sciences. She wanted to be as strict and demonstrative as, for example, mathematics. Thus, philosophy, at least in part, removed itself from the composition of humanitarian knowledge, dehumanized myself. The real meaningful tasks of philosophy were either forgotten or distorted (Hegel in “Phenomenology of Spirit” proudly notes that in his person philosophy is finally becoming science (logic). He did not suspect that with this he killed philosophy, because for philosophy to become science means to stop being yourself). This leads to the following conclusion:

4. Hegelian philosophy aggravated and exposed the failures of rationalism and abstract thinking. The classical paradigm in Hegel's philosophy has exhausted and outlived its usefulness and found itself in a state of crisis. Philosophy was faced with a choice: to disappear or to radically reform itself, to look for a new paradigm. Philosophy chose the second. She took a different path, anti-Hegelian.

Achievements of the philosophy of the New Time

The practical significance of the philosophy of the New Time has acquired a previously unprecedented scope. The new philosophy did not simply reflect man's awareness of his power. Its significance as a worldview system, its powerful influence on Western thought, was based on its scientific and then on its technological foundation. Never before has any way of thinking led to such clearly tangible results.

It is no coincidence that Isaac Newton reached the pinnacle of his discoveries using a virtual synthesis of Bacon's inductive empiricism with Descartes' deductive mathematical rationalism, thereby making the scientific method first introduced by Galileo bear fruit abundantly.

It has now become obvious that the highest achievements of mankind can be accelerated through ever more sophisticated scientific analysis and proper handling of the natural world, and also by systematically pushing the boundaries of intellectual and existential independence of man in all areas of life - physical, social, political, religious, scientific, metaphysical.

Now the time has come to realize the dream of human freedom and great achievements in this world. Humanity has finally seen an enlightened age.

Philosophy of the 19th century and the main directions of modern Western philosophy

Classical and non-classical types of philosophy of the 19th century.

Vl. Soloviev called Hegel’s philosophy a “turning point” in the development of Western philosophy. This “turning point” is indeed visible very clearly: instead of reason - will, faith, imagination; instead of rationalism - irrationalism; from the philosophy of concepts - to the philosophy of life of Schopenhauer and Nietzsche; from abstract principles - to the concreteness of the world and man; from speculative metaphysics - to direct experience of life; from speculative rationality to scientific rationality (positivism and naturalism).

The watershed between classical and non-classical philosophy lies on the issue of the attitude towards traditional rationalism and its opposite - irrationalism; the extreme poles are conservative traditionalism and “radical nihilism.”

The classical type of philosophy includes, for example, positivism, Marxism, neo-Kantianism, phenomenology, hermeneutics, analytical philosophy, etc.

The non-classical type of philosophy includes voluntarism, philosophy of life in its various manifestations, existentialism, postmodernism, etc.

Let's consider four philosophical trends that developed in the 19th century: two of them belong to the classical tradition (positivism and Marxism), two to the non-classical tradition (voluntarism and philosophy of life).

The main representatives of philosophy of the 19th century. and their key ideas