Political reforms of Peter 1 briefly. Transformations of Peter I and their role in history

Reforms of Peter the Great

Introduction

Chapter 1. Prerequisites for Peter's reforms

1.1. The socio-economic situation in the country before Peter’s reforms

External prerequisites for Peter's reforms

Chapter 2. State reforms of Peter 1

2.1. Reforms of public authorities

Church reform

Chapter 3. Military reforms of the first quarter of the 18th century

Army reforms

Fleet reforms

Conclusion

List of used literature

Chapter 2. State reforms of Peter 1

2.1. Reforms of public authorities

Of all the transformations of Peter I, the central place is occupied by the reform of public administration, the reorganization of all its links.

The system of power inherited by Peter I did not allow raising enough funds to reorganize and increase the army, build a fleet, build fortresses and St. Petersburg, which was required to wage wars.

At the beginning of the 18th century. Meetings of the Boyar Duma actually cease, management of the central and local state apparatus passes to the “Concilia of Ministers” - a temporary council of heads of the most important government departments, organized in 1699. It consisted of 8 proxies. A certain mode of work was established in the Consilium: each minister had special powers, reports and minutes of meetings appeared.

In 1711, instead of the Boyar Duma and the Council that replaced it, the Senate was established.

He occupied a key position in Peter's state system. The Senate, consisting of 9 people, created by Peter for the current administration of the state during his absence (at that time the tsar was going on the Prut campaign), turned from temporary into a permanent supreme government institution, which was enshrined in the Decree of 1722. He controlled justice, was in charge of trade, fees and expenses of the state, monitored the orderly performance of military service by the nobles, was in charge of colleges and provinces, appointed and approved officials, and the functions of the Rank and Ambassadorial orders were transferred to him.

Decisions in the Senate were made collegially, at a general meeting, and were supported by the signatures of all members of the highest state body. If one of the 9 senators refused to sign the decision, the decision was considered invalid. Thus, Peter I delegated part of his powers to the Senate, but at the same time imposed personal responsibility on its members.

The Senate, as a government, could make decisions, but required an administrative apparatus to carry them out. In 1717-1721, a reform of the executive bodies of government was carried out, as a result of which the outdated system of orders was replaced by collegiums. In contrast to orders, the functions and spheres of activity of each board were strictly demarcated, and relations within the board itself were built on the principle of collegiality of decisions. 11 boards were introduced:

Collegium of Foreign Affairs.

Military Collegium - recruitment, armament, equipment and training of the ground army.

Admiralty Collegium - naval affairs, fleet.

Kamor collegium - collection of state revenues.

The State Board of Directors was in charge of state expenses,

The Audit Board controls the collection and expenditure of government funds.

Commerce Board - issues of shipping, customs and foreign trade.

Berg College - mining and metallurgy.

Manufactory Collegium - light industry.

The College of Justice was in charge of issues of civil proceedings (the Serfdom Office operated under it: it registered various acts - bills of sale, the sale of estates, spiritual wills, debt obligations).

The Spiritual College - managed church affairs (later the Holy Governing Synod).

All boards were subordinate to the Senate.

In 1721, the Patrimonial Collegium was formed - it was in charge of noble land ownership (land litigation, transactions for the purchase and sale of land and peasants, and the search for fugitives were considered). In 1720, the Chief Magistrate was formed as a collegium to govern the city population. On February 28, 1720, the General Regulations introduced a uniform system of office work in the state apparatus for the entire country.

Simultaneously with the Senate, the position of fiscals appeared to monitor the implementation of local decisions and reduce endemic corruption. Fiscal officers were supposed to “secretly inspect, report and expose” all abuses of both high and low officials, pursue embezzlement, bribery, and accept denunciations from private individuals. At the head of the fiscals was the chief fiscal, appointed by the king and subordinate to him. The duty of the chief fiscal officer under the Senate was to secretly supervise the activities of institutions: cases of violation of decrees and abuses were identified and reported to the Senate and the Tsar. Denunciations were considered and reported monthly to the Senate by the Execution Chamber - a special judicial presence of four judges and two senators (existed in 1712-1719). Since 1715, the work of the Senate was supervised by the Auditor General, who in 1718 was renamed Chief Secretary. In 1719-1723 The fiscals were subordinate to the College of Justice, and with the establishment in January 1722, the positions of the Prosecutor General were supervised by him. Since 1723, the chief fiscal officer was the fiscal general, appointed by the sovereign, his assistant was the chief fiscal, appointed by the Senate, and the prosecutors of all other institutions were subordinate to them. In this regard, the fiscal service withdrew from the subordination of the Justice College and regained departmental independence. The vertical of fiscal control was brought to the city level.

In 1708-1715, a regional reform was carried out with the aim of strengthening the vertical of power at the local level and better providing the army with supplies and recruits. In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces headed by governors vested with full judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingria (later St. Petersburg), Kyiv, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberian. The Moscow province provided more than a third of revenues to the treasury, followed by the Kazan province.

The governors were in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province. In 1710, new administrative units appeared - shares, uniting 5,536 households. The first regional reform did not solve the set tasks, but only significantly increased the number of civil servants and the costs of their maintenance.

In 1719-1720, a second regional reform was carried out, eliminating shares. The provinces began to be divided into 50 provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts headed by zemstvo commissars appointed by the Chamber Board. Only military and judicial matters remained under the governor's jurisdiction.

As a result of public administration reforms, the establishment of an absolute monarchy, as well as the bureaucratic system on which the emperor relied, ended.

Estate reforms

Peter's goal was to create a powerful noble state. To do this, it was necessary to disseminate knowledge among the nobles, improve their culture, and make the nobility prepared and suitable for achieving the goals that Peter set for himself. Peter sought to ensure that all the nobility considered “sovereign service” their honorable right, their calling, to skillfully rule the country and command the troops. To do this, it was necessary first of all to spread education among the nobles. Peter established a new duty for the nobles - educational: from 10 to 15 years of age, the nobleman had to learn “literacy, numbers and geometry”, and then had to go to serve. Without a certificate of “training,” a nobleman was not given “eternal memory”—permission to marry.

Decrees of 1712, 1714 and 1719 a procedure was established according to which “birth” was not taken into account when appointing to a position and serving. And vice versa, those who came from the people, the most gifted, active, and devoted to the cause of Peter, had the opportunity to receive any military or civilian rank.

As a result, a new structure of society emerged, in which the class character was more clearly formed. The rights of the nobility were expanded and the responsibilities of the nobility were defined, and, at the same time, the serfdom of the peasants was strengthened.

Nobility

The new management system expanded the scope and forms of service of the nobles, which caused his dissatisfaction. Peter I transferred all nobles and servicemen to regular service. Military affairs, which in Moscow times was the duty of a narrow class of service people, is now becoming the duty of all segments of the population.

All previous categories of service people were united together into one class - the nobility. All lower ranks could equally rise to higher ranks. The order of such length of service was precisely defined by the Decree of 1721. “Table of ranks.” In the “Table”, all ranks were distributed into 14 ranks or “ranks” according to their service seniority. Upon reaching the eighth grade, any official or military man could receive the status of hereditary nobility. Thus, a person’s career depended primarily not on his origin, but on his achievements in public service. The “Table of Ranks” replaced the principle of birth with the principle of length of service and suitability for service. But Peter made one concession to the people from the old nobility. He allowed noble youth to enroll primarily in his favorite guards regiments Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky. The place of the former boyars was taken by the “generals”, consisting of ranks of the first four classes of the “Table of Ranks”. Personal service mixed up representatives of the former family nobility with people raised by service.

In 1706, a Decree on Education was issued: boyar children must receive either primary school or home education. Peter demanded that the nobles be required to learn literacy and mathematics, and deprived those who were not trained of the right to marry and receive an officer rank.

Peter limited the landowning rights of the nobles. He stopped giving them estates from the treasury upon entering the service, but provided them with a cash salary. It was forbidden to split up noble estates and estates when transferring them to sons. In 1714, a Decree on Single Inheritance was issued: a landowner with sons could bequeath all his real estate to only one of them of his choice. The rest were obliged to serve. The decree marked the final merger of the noble estate and the boyar estate, thereby finally erasing the difference between the two classes of feudal lords.

On February 5, 1722, due to the absence of an heir, Peter I decides to issue an order on succession to the throne, in which he reserves the right to appoint an heir for himself.

Peasantry

Peter's reforms changed the situation of the peasants. From different categories of peasants who were not in serfdom from the landowners or the church (black-growing peasants of the north, non-Russian nationalities, etc.), a new unified category of state peasants was formed - personally free, but paying rent to the state.

State peasants in the 18th century had the rights of personally free people (they could own property, act in court as one of the parties, elect representatives to class bodies, etc.), but were limited in movement and could be (until the beginning of the 19th century, when this category is finally approved as free people) transferred by the monarch to the category of serfs.

Legislative acts concerning the serf peasantry themselves were of a contradictory nature. Thus, the intervention of landowners in the marriage of serfs was limited (decree of 1724), it was forbidden to present serfs as defendants in court and to hold them on the right for the debts of the owner. The rule was also confirmed that the estates of landowners who had ruined their peasants should be transferred into the custody of the estates, and the peasants were given the opportunity to enroll as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom (by a decree of Emperor Elizabeth on July 2, 1742, the peasants were deprived of this opportunity).

At the same time, measures against runaway peasants were significantly tightened, large masses of palace peasants were distributed to private individuals, and landowners were allowed to recruit serfs. The imposition of a capitation tax on serfs (that is, personal servants without land) led to the merging of serfs with serfs. Church peasants were subordinated to the monastic order and removed from the authority of the monasteries.

Under Peter, a new category of dependent farmers was created - peasants assigned to manufactories. In the 18th century, these peasants were called possession farmers. A decree of 1721 allowed nobles and merchant manufacturers to buy peasants to manufactories to work for them. The peasants bought for the factory were not considered the property of its owners, but were attached to production, so that the owner of the factory could neither sell nor mortgage the peasants separately from the manufacture. Possession peasants received a fixed salary and performed a fixed amount of work.

Urban population

Before Peter, the urban estate constituted a very small and poor class. Peter wanted to create in Russia an urban economically strong and active class, similar to what he saw in Western Europe. Peter expanded city government. In 1720, a chief magistrate was created, who was supposed to take care of the urban class. All cities were divided into classes according to the number of inhabitants. City residents were divided into “regular” and “irregular” (“mean”) citizens. Regular citizens made up two “guilds”: the first included representatives of capital and the intelligentsia, the second included small traders and artisans. Craftsmen were divided into “guilds” according to their crafts. Irregular people or “mean” were called laborers. The difference between the urban regular citizen of the end of Peter's reign and the irregular citizen was that the regular citizen participated in city government by electing members of the magistrate and was enrolled in the guild and workshop. In addition, city affairs were discussed at town hall meetings or councils of regular citizens. Each city was subordinate to the chief magistrate, bypassing any other local authorities.

So, at the end of the reign of Peter the Great, a lot changed in the life of the classes. The nobles began to serve differently. The townspeople received a new device and benefits. The peasantry began to pay differently and merged with the serfs on private lands. And the state continued to look at the estates in the same way as before. It defined their lives as a duty, not a right. All subjects lived not for themselves, but “for the sovereign and the zemstvo’s cause,” and were supposed to be an obedient instrument in the hands of the state.

2.3 Church reform

One of the transformations of Peter I was the reform of church administration that he carried out, aimed at eliminating the church jurisdiction autonomous from the state and subordinating the Russian hierarchy to the Emperor. In 1700 Patriarch Adrian died, and Peter I forbade electing a successor for him. The management of the church was entrusted to Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan, who received the new title of “Guardian of the Patriarchal Throne” or “Exarch”.

To manage the property of the patriarchal and bishop's houses, as well as monasteries, including the peasants belonging to them (approximately 795 thousand), the Monastic Order was restored, headed by I. A. Musin-Pushkin, who again began to be in charge of the trial of the monastic peasants and control income from church and monastic landholdings.

In 1721, the patriarchate was abolished, and the “Holy Governing Synod,” or Spiritual Collegium, subordinate to the Senate, was created to govern the church. All members of the Synod were appointed by the Emperor and took an oath to him upon taking office.

Peter approved the Spiritual Regulations, the drafting of which was entrusted to the Pskov bishop, close to the Tsar, Feofan Prokopovich. As a result, a radical reform of the church took place, eliminating the autonomy of the clergy and completely subordinating it to the state.

Church reform meant the elimination of the independent political role of the church. It turned into an integral part of the bureaucratic apparatus of the absolutist state. Peter widely used the institutions of the church to carry out police policies, strengthened control over church income and systematically seized a significant part of it for the needs of the treasury.

Thus, church reform played a very important role in the formation of absolutism in Russia

Chapter 3. Military reforms of the first quarter of the 18th century

3.3 Army reforms

Military reforms occupy a special place among the transformations of Peter the Great. Military reforms were also extremely important because they had a huge, often decisive, influence on all aspects of the life of the state. Their course was largely determined by constant wars (during the 36-year period of the reign of Peter I, only a few peaceful years can be counted).

Their main idea was to eliminate noble militias and create a permanent, combat-ready army with a uniform structure, weapons, uniforms, discipline and regulations.

The Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, which grew out of the childhood fun of the young tsar, became the first regiments of the new Russian army, built with the help of foreigners according to the European model. Reforming the army and creating a navy became necessary conditions for victory in the Northern War of 1700-1721.

During this period, a radical reorganization of the armed forces took place. A powerful regular army is being created in Russia and, in connection with this, the local noble militia and the Streltsy army are being eliminated. When creating a regular army, the Russian government had to decide on its size, methods of recruitment and forms of warfare. At the same time, it was necessary to rebuild the system of supplying troops with weapons, ammunition and food, as well as organize combat training of troops, and introduce a new command and control system.

The Russian army consisted of three types of troops: infantry, artillery and cavalry. In addition, the garrison troops numbered about 70 thousand people, the militia - 6 thousand, and 105 thousand - Cossacks and other irregular units. The basis of the army began to consist of regular infantry and cavalry regiments with a uniform staff, uniforms, and weapons, which carried out combat training in accordance with general army regulations.

Before Peter, the army consisted of two main parts - the noble militia and various semi-regular formations (streltsy, Cossacks, foreign regiments). The revolutionary change was that Peter introduced a new principle of recruiting the army - periodic convocations of the militia were replaced by systematic conscription. The recruitment system was based on the class-serf principle. Recruitment sets extended to the population who paid taxes and carried out state duties. In preparation for the Northern War, Peter ordered in 1699 to carry out a general recruitment and begin training soldiers according to the model established by the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovtsy. Already in the first year, Peter formed, in addition to two guards regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky - 29 infantry and 2 dragoons. In 1705, every 20 households had to put up one recruit, a single guy aged 15 to 20, for lifelong service (however, during the Northern War, these terms were constantly changing due to a shortage of soldiers and sailors. Subsequently, recruits began to be taken from a certain number male souls among the peasants. Recruits from the tax-paying classes in the army became equal to the noble soldiers, learned uniform military equipment, and the entire mass of servicemen formed a single army, which in its fighting qualities was not inferior to European troops.

From 1699 to 1725 53 recruitments were carried out, giving the army and navy more than 280 thousand people. Recruits underwent military training and received government-issued weapons and uniforms. “Willing people” from free peasants were also recruited into the army with a salary of 11 rubles a year.

In accordance with the recruitment system, the soldiers of the field army and garrison troops were formed from peasants and other tax-paying classes, and the officer corps - exclusively from nobles. For the training of officers, the military practical school of officers for army regiments, the Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky guards regiments, as well as special schools - navigation, artillery, engineering, admiralty, etc. were widely used. If at first among the officers there were mainly foreign specialists, then after the start of work Navigation, artillery, and engineering schools, the growth of the army was satisfied by Russian officers from the noble class.

The Tsar's decree of February 26, 1714 prohibited the promotion to officers of nobles who did not serve as soldiers in the guards regiments.

In 1716, the Military Regulations of Peter I were published, which consisted of 68 chapters and determined the order of military service, the rules of relations between military personnel, the military criminal system, the system of military ranks, the judicial system and many other issues. Officer training was carried out in two military schools - Bombardier (artillery) and Preobrazhenskaya (infantry). Subsequently, Peter opened naval, engineering, medical and other military schools, which allowed him, at the end of his reign, to completely refuse to invite foreign officers to Russian service.

The weapons of the Russian army were improved. The development of metallurgy contributed to a significant increase in the production of artillery pieces; outdated artillery of different calibers was replaced by new types of guns. For the first time in the army, bladed weapons and firearms were combined - a bayonet was attached to the gun, which significantly increased the fire and striking power of the army. First-class domestic artillery was created. In the army under Peter I, a qualitatively new weapon was used for the first time, when a bayonet was attached to the gun, which significantly increased the effectiveness of infantry in battle.

As a result of the transformations, a strong regular army was created. By the end of Peter's reign, the number of regular ground forces reached 210 thousand (of which 2,600 were in the guard, 41,550 in cavalry, 75 thousand in infantry, 74 thousand in garrisons) and up to 110 thousand irregular troops.

3.2 Fleet reforms

Peter I paid great attention to the fleet. He personally compiled in 1720 Marine charter, where it was written “Only that sovereign has both hands who has both a land army and a fleet.”

In addition, the reforms of Peter I were guided by the conditions of his time. The starting point for the fleet reforms was Azov campaigns (1695-1696).

In 1695, Russian troops besieged Azov (a Turkish fortress at the mouth of the Don), but due to a lack of weapons and the absence of a fleet, Azov was not captured. Realizing this, Peter, with his characteristic energy, set about building a fleet. It was decided to organize Kumpanstvos (companies) - associations of secular and spiritual landowners who would be engaged in the construction of ships. The fleet was built on the Voronezh River at its confluence with the Don. The construction of the fleet was carried out at an unprecedentedly fast pace at the level of the best examples of military shipbuilding of that time.

In 1696, Russian naval forces won their first victory - Azov was taken.

With the outbreak of the Northern War, the focus shifts to the Baltic, and with the founding of St. Petersburg, shipbuilding is carried out almost exclusively there. By 1725, the Baltic fleet consisted of 32 battleships armed with 50 to 96 cannons each, 16 frigates, 85 galleys and many other smaller ships. The total number of Russian military sailors was about 30 thousand. The Baltic Fleet in the 30s of the 18th century became the most powerful Russian fleet.

Recruitment into the navy, as into the army, was carried out from recruits.

The fleet consisted of 48 battleships; galleys and other vessels 787; There were almost 30 thousand people on all ships. 28 thousand people were in service.

By the end of Peter's reign, Russia had become one of the strongest naval powers in the world, having 48 ships of the line and 788 galleys and other ships.

The main results of Peter the Great’s military reforms are as follows: – the creation of a combat-ready regular army, one of the strongest in the world, which gave Russia the opportunity to fight its main opponents and defeat them; – the emergence of a whole galaxy of talented commanders (Alexander Menshikov, Boris Sheremetev, Fyodor Apraksin, Yakov Bruce, etc.); – creation of a powerful navy; – a gigantic increase in military expenditures and covering them through the most brutal squeezing of funds from the people.

Introduction

Chapter 1. Russia before the reforms of Peter the Great

1 Natural and geographical conditions

2 Factors promoting reforms

Chapter 2. The era of Peter the Great and the content of Peter’s reforms

1 Reforms of Peter the Great

Chapter 3. Results and essence of Peter’s reforms

1 Assessing the essence of Petrine reforms

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

reform Peter the Great

The activities of Peter the Great as a politician and commander, as well as his contribution to the development of Russia, are issues that historians not only of our state, but also of many other countries, are interested in and study.

But historians’ opinions were divided in assessing Peter’s activities. Some historians, his followers, talk about the great achievements and influences of Peter in many areas of life, which in turn led to the rise of Russia as a great and powerful power, which the whole world began to talk about after Peter. This was a kind of phenomenon, since in such a short period of time, Peter the Great, with the help of his diplomatic qualities, as well as the qualities of a good statesman and commander, was able to lead Russia from destruction into a dynamically developing state. But at the same time, historians overlook some negative aspects of the character of Peter the Great and his activities. Another part of historians, on the contrary, is trying to discredit the name of Peter, pointing out the ways and methods by which he achieved such success in his political and military activities.

Studying the era of the reign of Peter the Great, we trace the process of development and formation of Russia, which moved from a barbarian kingdom into a powerful and great empire.

For this course project the following tasks were set:

· A study of the preconditions and the very reasons for the need for reforms by Peter the Great.

· Analyze the main content and meaning of the reforms.

· Reveal the results of the influence of Peter the Great's reforms on the development of the state.

This course work consists of the following sections:

·Introduction;

·Three chapters;

Conclusions

Chapter 1. Russia before the reforms of Peter the Great

.1 Natural and geographical conditions

It is often believed that with the coming to power of Peter the Great, a new era began in Russia.

What was Russia like at the end of the 17th century? It was a huge territory that was unlike Western countries. Russia immediately caught the eye of foreigners who visited it. It often seemed to them that it was a backward, wild and nomadic country. Although in fact, there were reasons for the backwardness in the development of Russia. The intervention and devastation of the early 18th century left a deep mark on the state's economy.

But not only the wars that ravaged the land led to a crisis in Russia, but also its social status of the population at that time, as well as natural and geographical conditions.

According to S.M. Solovyov, “three conditions have a special influence on the life of the people: the nature of the country where they live; the nature of the tribe to which he belongs; the course of external events, influences coming from the peoples who surround him.”[№1, p.28]

When assessing how natural conditions influence the development of states. Soloviev concluded that nature is favorable to Western countries, but the conditions in Russia are more severe. Western Europe was divided by mountains, which served as natural fortresses for it and, in some ways, protected it from external attacks by enemies. On the other side is the sea, which served as a route for the development of foreign trade in a variety of activities. In Russia, everything was different. It had no natural defenses and was open to attack by invaders.

A very large number of people lived in these open territories, who, in order to feed themselves, had to always work and periodically look for new fertile lands, as well as more prosperous habitats. In the process of resettlement to lands that were empty, the state of Russia was formed.

Soloviev was sure that it was natural-geographical conditions that had such a negative impact. Russia, in his words, “was a state that constantly had to wage a difficult struggle with its neighbors, a struggle not offensive, but defensive, and it was not material well-being that was defended, but the independence of the country, the freedom of the inhabitants” [No. 2, p. 29]. During the war with the Mongol-Tatars, the Slavic people, including the Russians, acted as a protective shield for Western European countries. Therefore, Russia always had to replenish its troops in order to be able to adequately repel the invaders and reliably guard its borders.

But the state of that time could not afford to maintain a large army, since during this period trade and industry were poorly developed in Russia. Therefore, people who served in the army were given lands, which became their estates. On the one hand, a person received his own land for his use, but on the other hand, in order to somehow develop it, the land had to be cultivated. “The state,” wrote Solovyov, “having given land to a serving man, was obliged to give him permanent workers, otherwise he could not serve” [No. 3, p. 32]. Therefore, at that time there was a ban on peasants leaving their land, because they were obliged to cultivate it in order to be able to feed the owner and his military servants.

This was precisely what served as the basis for the emergence of serfdom in Rus'. But besides the peasants, the urban population also worked to support the army. They were obliged to pay very large taxes to the state treasury for the maintenance of troops.

That is, all layers of the state turned into its servants, which contributed to an even more severe serfdom, which in turn hampered both the economic situation and development in spirituality. Because on numerous agricultural lands, which were constantly expanding, a very small number of people worked diligently. This did not create any interest in the development of labor productivity, but on the contrary, agriculture developed by depleting natural forces, and not by reproducing them. Minimal expenses were spent on agriculture. Because almost the entire state treasury was spent on meeting the needs and development of the army. All this led to the fact that a strong state in terms of defense had practically no material base.

In addition to difficulties in the middle of the state, historians also pay attention to a number of external obstacles that hampered the development of Russia. This is that Russia did not have direct access to the sea, which meant that it could not use a cheaper route of communication with other countries. Seas such as the Baltic and Black seas at that time belonged to other states, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire, respectively. Those seas that washed the northern part and the east could not be used to their full potential, the reason for this was that the regions adjacent to the seas were practically undeveloped and poorly developed.

The White Sea, also, as a route of connection with the countries of Western Europe, was practically not used. Firstly, most of the year the waters are locked under ice, and secondly, the route from Arkhangelsk to Western European countries was twice as long as to the Baltic.

Russia, through Astrakhan, had connections only with Iran and Central Asia, although these countries could have little influence on its development, since they themselves lagged behind.

1.2 Factors promoting reforms

The Russian state urgently needed change. This was due to a number of different factors.

National sovereignty was under threat, the reason for this was the lag of the Russian state in all sectors of the economic and political life of the state, which in turn even led to a military lag.

The class of feudal lords, who were in military and court service, later became the mainstay of power of that time, in no way did they meet the requirements of the country's social development. This class lagged behind both in socio-political and cultural development; sometimes they could not even clearly understand their rights and responsibilities as a service class and, in principle, remained simply a patriarchal social community.

In the 17th century, Russia needed an urgent change in its position. It was necessary to strengthen the position of power, which was undermined by the rebellious nature of the population of that time and the social instability of that time. Russia also needed to improve the state apparatus and the army itself. In order to somehow raise the standard of living and culture, it was necessary to have access to the seas, which could provide a more favorable economic position, and this, in turn, required the timely mobilization of both resources and the human factor.

The spiritual sphere of Russian life also needed transformation. The spirituality of that time was strongly influenced by the clergy, who in the 17th century suffered a crisis associated with the schism of the church. Russia urgently needed to be returned to the depths of European civilization, and it was also necessary to create and subsequently strengthen a rationalist concept that would replace religion.

Changes and transformations were impossible, in fact they could not be avoided, because everything that happened during the 17th century led directly to this. The intensive development of crafts began in the country, the first enterprises appeared, which were called manufactories, this in turn contributed to the development of foreign trade, the boundaries of which were constantly expanding. In the 17th century, a policy of protectionism began to develop, which limited imports, and thereby protected the domestic market from foreign competition. This all indicated that, in small steps, the economy began to move forward. Beginning in the late 16th century and early 17th century, the state attempted to erase the conventions between Lenten landownership and fiefdom. At this time, several decrees were issued according to which the patrimony was approaching the estate. This gave the state the right to expand the rights to confiscate land and not allow it to be concentrated in the hands of feudal lords or the clergy.

In 1682, the state abolished the system of allocating public service positions, namely military, administrative or court service, depending on origin. The number of people who were recruited increased due to the strengthening of serfdom.

In its political system, the country was an absolute monarchy and continued to develop in this direction. At this time, Left Bank Ukraine joined Russia, and the state was able to enter the Holy League, thereby overcoming diplomatic barriers. The change in culture began with the transformation of the church. The clergy began to be involved in solving everyday issues of world life. The upper strata of the state also changed, which approached the European one.

Having analyzed all the facts, we can say with confidence that the country was completely ready for changes in all areas of its life. But in order for this to happen, a push, some kind of impulse was needed. This impetus should have been a person who would stand at the very origins of power. And this is exactly the kind of person Peter the Great became. His activities, both state and military, were influenced by such factors as his character traits and his worldview.

Chapter 2. The era of Peter I and the content of Peter’s reforms

Peter the Great immediately became involved in the rule of the strange one, expanding its borders and developing the country as a whole. Under Peter, the struggle for possession of the seas, namely the Black Sea, was resumed. Which opened up new opportunities for the state. And Peter was well aware of this. Therefore, in 1695 it was announced that troops were gathering for a campaign against the Crimean Tatars. But this was done in order to hide the real goals, which were to organize a campaign against Azov. Peter took into account all the failures of the foreseeing companies and organized an army that would move in two directions. This was the first campaign against Azov. Bad autumn weather, as well as the absence of a fleet, forced the commanders to announce a retreat.

In preparation for the new campaign, the main efforts were focused on building a fleet that would make it possible to cut off the Azov fortress from the sea, and thereby deprive the Turks of reinforcements. It was decided to build two types of ships: sea galleys and river plows. The second Azov campaign began in May 1696 and on June 19, 1696 the Turks surrendered. The conquest of the Azov fortress was the impetus for the beginning of the formation of Russia as a maritime power.

The beginning had been made, now it was necessary to gain access to the Black Sea. And to consolidate the successful operation and to implement new plans, Peter had to create a large and powerful navy. For this purpose, a decision was made to organize the construction of this fleet, in addition, Peter the Great sent noble youth abroad to study marine sciences, with their subsequent use in the management of the Russian fleet.

At the same time, diplomats were sent abroad to participate in negotiations in order to find allies among European countries and organize an alliance with them. The purpose of this alliance was to jointly act against Turkey, as well as to provide material support for further military operations. Peter himself was personally part of the embassy, ​​but in addition to the purposes of negotiations, he also pursued the goal of studying maritime affairs.

After his return, Peter, under the impressions of his trip, became actively involved in the activities of the state. He began changes simultaneously and in all areas. At the very first feast, Peter the Great trimmed the beards of several boyars and after that, he ordered everyone to shave. Later, shaving was replaced by a tax. If a nobleman wanted to wear a beard, he was obliged to pay a certain tax per year for it. Later innovations also affected clothing, when the long dresses of the boyars were replaced by short and completely comfortable suits. The fashion of all nobles was at most close to European. So initially Peter divided the population into two groups: one was the “top” of society, which had to live and dress in a European way, the other was all the rest, whose life had not changed, and they lived in the old way.

Peter the Great kept a calendar, the new year began on January 1st. On the eve of this, it was prescribed to decorate the outside of houses and congratulate each other on the New Year.

In 1699, Peter the Great issued a decree on the formation of an institution in the city of Moscow, which would be called the Town Hall or the Burgomaster's Chamber. The duties of the Town Hall were to manage merchant affairs, as well as affairs that concerned the city itself. This, in turn, caused some displeasure on the part of the merchants, who were always afraid of ruin from the courts and governors of this administration. An example of such management was the Chamber of Ships. It was created immediately after the capture of Azov and the purpose of this chamber is to collect taxes from merchants for the construction of a fleet. Later, using the example of this same commission, the Town Hall was formulated; mayors sat in it; they, in turn, were elected by merchants and artisans. Taxes, which, by order of the court, were collected by officials, were transferred to the hands of elected people. In general, although the new institution was elective and its goal was to manage the merchants, in essence this management represented the interests of the commercial and industrial class.

Also, the result of Peter the Great’s trip abroad was that shipbuilding specialists and more were invited to serve in Russia. Peter the Great was able to purchase weapons, which also had a positive impact on the development of the army. By the way, although the army was quite large, it was poorly armed.

Innovations also affected the education of the population. Russia was in dire need of qualified personnel. In Russia itself at that time there were no such institutions; many young men went abroad to master new sciences. A little later, the Russian Empire had its own Novigatskaya school; it was opened in 1701, in the city of Moscow. A printing house was opened in Amsterdam that printed books in Russian. At the same time, the first Russian Order of St. Apostle Andrew the First-Called was founded.

The reform began in the management of the Russian state. Under Peter there was a transition to a new state form of government, such as an absolute monarchy. The power of Peter the Great was practically not limited by anyone or anything. Peter was able to replace the Boyar Duma with the Senate, which was controlled from above. Thus, he freed himself from the last boyar claims and deprived them of any political competition. He got rid of the same competition from the church, with the help of the Synod.

At the same time, at the end of 1699, reform in the military sphere was initiated. Much attention was paid to creating a regular and qualified army. 30 new regiments were formed. The army, as before, was recruited mainly from peasants. But if earlier they spent on their uniforms themselves, then for Peter, each recruit was given a green uniform and weapons - guns with bayonets. Since there were few experienced commanders at that time, they were replaced for some time by foreign officers.

Simultaneously with the beginning of reforms, Peter was preparing for war against Sweden. He was sure that its conquest was absolutely necessary for Russia to continue to develop normally. This was facilitated by the favorable situation of that time. European countries created a coalition in order to return their lands previously seized by Sweden. Russia, having signed a peace treaty with Turkey for 30 years in 1700, also joined the war. Thus began the Great Northern War, which dragged on for 21 years.

From the very beginning, Russia and its allies were defeated. This was due to the fact that Sweden, although it was a small country, had an army and preparation for military action at the highest level, compared to its rival power. In addition, the king of Sweden at that time was 18-year-old Charles XII, who, unexpectedly for everyone, showed great talent for the war, as a commander with very high energy potential. With a detachment of only 15 thousand people, he marched against Denmark. As a result of this campaign, the Danish king signed a peace treaty in 1700, thereby leaving the war. Without wasting any time, Charles XII went to the Baltic states, namely to the Russian army. Privileges were on the side of the Russians, their army consisted of 40 thousand people, but these forces were not provided with food and stretched over a vast territory. Which made it easier to attack them. On November 19, 1700, Charles XII unexpectedly attacked the Russian army and won. Russia retreated, the command turned out to be unprepared for war.

People abroad sincerely rejoiced at the defeats of the Russians; they even poured out a coin that depicted a running Russian soldier and a crying Tsar. At first, Peter wanted to conduct peace negotiations, but they were not successful. Having shown all his energy and analyzed the reasons for the failures, Peter the Great begins preparations for a new stage of the war. A new recruiting call was announced, guns began to pour out intensively, and by the beginning of 1702 the Russian army had 10 regiments and 368 guns.

Having chosen the right moment, when Charles XII, considering that he had completely defeated Russia, went to Poland and settled there for a long time, Peter, gathering an army, began a new stage of the war. In December 1701, Russia won its first victory. As a result of military operations, two fortresses were taken, such as Noteburg and Nyenschanz

Peter, at the head of his army, finally reached the Baltic Sea. On May 16, 1703, they began to build a wooden fortress on the island, called Peter and Paul Fortress. It was the foundation of St. Petersburg. And already in October the first merchant ship arrived at the mouth of the Neva. The first ships of the Baltic Fleet were built in the shipyards of St. Petersburg.

Russian victories in the Baltic states continued. But the initiative passed to the Swedes when Poland surrendered and Russia was left without allies. And at this time, Sweden, after the conquest of Poland, had already occupied Saxony and approached the borders of the Russian state. Peter stopped offensive actions and focused his attention on preserving existing borders, strengthening them, and also sought to expand and improve his army and military potential in general. To achieve his goals, Peter the Great had to spend a lot of effort and make a lot of sacrifices, but in the end, the goals were achieved.

In 1708, Karl met with the Russians near the town of Golovchin. Using the effect of surprise, as well as the dark and rainy weather, the Swedes defeated the Russians and forced them to retreat. This was Karl's last victory. Charles's troops suffered losses due to hunger; the Russian population, having learned that the Swedes were approaching, went into the forest, taking with them all the supplies and livestock. And Russian troops occupied all important strategic objects. Karl had no choice but to turn south.

At this time, the Russians were already winning victories not in numbers, as usual, but in strategically prepared battles. The initiative passed to Peter's side, but the nature of military operations changed radically. Russia abandons all previously acquired allies. For his military purposes, Peter used the territory that he conquered as a result of the battles. In 1710, Karelia, Livonia, and Estland were liberated from the Swedes, and the fortresses of Vyborg, Revel, and Riga were taken.

The decisive influence on the course of the war was the Battle of Poltava, which took place on June 27, 1709. As a result of a fierce battle, the Russians won a complete victory. The Swedes fled so quickly that in three days they reached the banks of the Dnieper. Karl headed to Turkey. Subsequently, the war spread to the Swedish possessions, which led to the collapse of the Swedish Empire.

But this was not the end of the war. Only in 1720 did Russian troops again attack the Swedish coast; the Russian landing force went 5 miles deep into Sweden. In the same year, the Russian fleet defeated the Swedish squadron on the island of Grenham. After this, the Swedes agreed to peace negotiations. They took place in the city of Nystand in Finland, where on August 30, 1721, a treaty of perpetual peace was signed. The difficult and long war (1700 - 1721) was over. As a result of this agreement, Ingria with St. Petersburg, all of Estonia and Livonia remained with the Russian Empire. Fenland went to Sweden.

The Northern War had a positive impact on Russia's position. It became one of the powerful states of Europe. Also, as a result of the war, Russia was able to regain its sea shores and thereby gained access to the sea. Russia became the main maritime power on the Baltic coast. As a result of the war, a strong, powerful, well-trained army was formed, as well as a powerful Baltic Fleet. A new capital, St. Petersburg, was founded on the shores of the Gulf of Finland. All this contributed to the further development of the economic and cultural rise of the Russian Empire. As a result of the Northern War, other states saw Peter the Great as a great commander and diplomat who fought for the interests of his state.

But the Peace of Nystadt did not serve to end hostilities during the reign of Peter the Great. The very next year, 1722, Peter began a war with Iran. The main reasons for this war were, firstly, silk, which was exported from Iran in large quantities, and secondly, the Russian state was attracted by Iranian oil. Having learned about Peter's intentions, an uprising began in Iran, during which Russian merchants were killed, but this was precisely the reason for the start of the war. In Iran, Peter did not encounter much resistance and already in 1723 a peace treaty was signed with the Iranian government. Under this agreement, cities such as Derbent, Baku and Astrabad were transferred to Russia.

All the wars that took place during the reign of Peter the Great were associated with the fact that he constantly expanded and improved his army, as well as with the creation of one of the most powerful fleets at that time. Since before Pera was a military man, there was no such thing as a Russian navy. Peter personally commanded the construction of this fleet. Also, before Peter there was no specially trained army. Even nobles began to be part of it, starting from the age of 15. They all served. Each one came to service with his own peasants, the number of which depended on the position of the nobleman. They also came to the service with their own supply of food, on their own horses and with their own uniforms. These troops were disbanded during peace and they gathered only in preparation for new campaigns. In addition, the Streltsy infantry was created; the infantry included the free population. In addition to performing basic tasks, namely, the infantry carried out police and garrison service, they had the right to engage in both craft and trade.

2.1 Reforms of Peter the Great

In 1716, a military charter was issued, which determined the order in the army, both in war and in peacetime. The charter required commanders to demonstrate independence and military resourcefulness during the war. Otto Pleir wrote about the Russian army in 1710: “Regarding the military forces of Russia ... one must be very surprised at what they have been brought to, to what perfection the soldiers have reached in military exercises, in what order and obedience to the orders of their superiors they are and how boldly they behave in action, You won’t hear a word from anyone, much less a scream.”

The merit of Peter the Great also lay in the fact that he was the creator of diplomacy in Russia. In addition to permanent warriors, active diplomatic activity was also carried out in the era of Peter. Permanent embassies were created, our consuls and ambassadors were sent for permanent residence abroad, and as a result, Russia was always aware of the events that were happening abroad. Russian diplomats were respected in many countries of the world, this was due to their ability to negotiate and substantively prove their point of view, which concerned foreign policy.

The policies of Peter the Great also affected the development of industry. During Peter's reign, about 200 factories and factories were created in Russia. The largest factories were those producing cast iron, iron parts, copper, as well as cloth, linen, silk, paper, and glass.

The largest enterprise of that time was the manufactory for the production of sailing cloth. The production of ropes was also carried out here at a special Rope Yard. “Khamovny Dvor” served the navy with sails and ropes.

Another major industrial manufacturer was the Dutchman Tamesa, who lived and worked in Moscow. This production produced canvases. The Dutchman's factory consisted of a spinning mill, where yarn was produced from flax, then the yarn went to the weaving department, where linen, as well as tablecloths and napkins, were made. The final stage was the department where the finished fabric was bleached and finished. The Tames factory was so famous that Peter himself and many foreigners visited it more than once. The weaving departments always made a special impression on the guests. Almost all Russians worked at the factories and produced different types of linens, the most popular in everyday life.

As for the situation of the workers in these factories, it can be said that it left much to be desired. The situation itself was very difficult. The basis of the working class were serfs. To please the entrepreneurs, the state made concessions to them and in 1721 allowed them to buy villages along with the peasants who live in them. The only difference between these peasants and the peasants who worked for the landowners was that they were bought and sold only in conjunction with factories or factories. There were also civilian employees at the factories, mostly craftsmen and craftsmen, but the wages were very meager. For example, at a linen manufactory located in the outskirts of St. Petersburg, a weaver received about 7 rubles. Per year, master - 12 rubles, apprentice - 6 rubles. in year. Although foreign specialists were paid much more, for example, in a silk factory, he could earn from 400 to 600 rubles. in year.

In addition, state peasants were assigned entire volosts to factories. As “assigned” workers, they were forced to work for 3-4 months at the plant. The wages were very small and they could not even get these pennies into their hands, since they were withdrawn as a tax to the treasury.

At the same time, the development of ores in the Urals began. Back in 1699, the Nevsky Factory was built, which exists to this day. At first, this plant belonged to the state, but then it was given to the Tula businessman N. Demidov - this was the first of the Demidov dynasty, one of the wealthy dynasties of that time and the most cruel towards its workers. The first thing Demidov did was build a prison for workers under the walls of the plant. Thanks to his factory, he was able to get so rich that he could already make presents and gifts to the king himself.

Factories were built on the banks of rivers to harness the power of moving water. The basis of the building was the dam, which was built very first; holes were made in the dam through which water flowed, then the water flowed into reservoirs. And from the reservoir through wooden pipes onto the wheels, the movement of which was carried out by the blowers at the blast furnace and forges, they lifted hammers for forging metals, moved levers and rotated drilling machines.

In 1722, the guild structure of artisans was introduced in Russia. The state forced urban artisans to enroll in guilds. A selective foreman stood over each workshop. Those who could afford to hire and retain apprentices and journeymen could be considered full-fledged artisans. To receive the title of master, a craftsman had to prove his skill under a foreman. Each craft workshop had its own mark, a farm sign, which was placed on good quality goods.

The intensive growth of industry in the country required good roads, which were necessary for the transportation of goods and raw materials. Unfortunately, Russia could not boast of good roads. This situation was associated with a small treasury and the natural conditions of the country itself. Therefore, for a long time, the best routes for trade were rivers and seas. One of the important routes of communication was the Volga, on which canals were built to improve communication routes. Communication channels such as the Volga - Don, Volga and Baltic Sea were built. The canals were supposed to expand trade and ensure the flow of goods to St. Petersburg, to the Baltic Sea. Peter also improved the St. Petersburg port, not only as a military facility, but also as a commercial one.

In 1724, a customs tariff was issued, which indicated the exact amounts of duties on a particular product, both for import and export. By doing this, the Russian government tried to expand the country's large industry. If a foreign product competed with a domestic one, a very high duty was imposed on it, and on the goods that Russia needed, since it could not produce in its own factories and factories, the duty was very low.

As a result of frequent and prolonged wars, the treasury was emptied, and the maintenance of the army and navy required great expenses. To replenish the treasury, private trade in certain types of goods was prohibited. All trade in certain goods was under the direction of the state and at increased prices. Over time, the state began to control the sale of: wine, salt, potash, caviar, furs, tar, chalk, lard, bristles. Most of these goods were for export, so all trade with foreign countries was in the hands of the state.

But this was not enough for a complete renewal and constant replenishment of the state treasury. Peter was the first to begin looking for other ways to find the necessary funds. For this purpose, new taxes, use taxes, were established. For example, for the use of a fishing area or a place for bee apiaries, etc.

During the reign of Peter, the treasury was replenished by 2/3 with indirect taxes, customs duties, and income from the sale of wine and other goods. And only 1/3 of the state budget was replenished with direct taxes, which were directly paid by the population. The reason for this was that direct taxes were imposed on ordinary artisans and peasants, while the clergy, nobles and wealthy entrepreneurs were exempt from this duty. Although, instead of a direct tax, a tax was taken from each male person of noble origin. This tax was intended to support the army, so the total amount for its maintenance was divided among all the “revision souls.” The administration of such taxes greatly enriched the state treasury. Over time, direct taxes began to bring half of the state budget. And so the difficult situation of the peasants worsened even more. Mass escapes from the landowners began to occur among the peasants. Peter tried to pacify the serfs and issued a decree on the capture of runaway peasants and their return to the former landowner, while the punishment for those who tried to hide the fugitives was increased. Peter widely distributed land and peasants to nobles.

Peasant labor was also used to build fortresses and the new capital. For this purpose, 20 thousand people gathered in St. Petersburg twice a year for three months.

Thus, we can conclude that the peculiarity of industry in the era of Peter the Great was that it was created at the expense of the state budget, for some period it was under its control, but periodically the forms and methods of this control themselves changed.

For a long period, the state itself created manufactories and was their full owner. But every year the number of manufactories and factories increased, and the funds and capabilities of the state were not enough to maintain and develop them in this way. Therefore, the policy that pre-industry was considered.

The state began to give away, and sometimes even sell, manufactories and factories that were on the verge of closure into private hands. Thus, private entrepreneurship began to emerge and rapidly gained momentum. The position of the breeders was strengthened with the help of various benefits from the state, as well as financial support in the form of loans from merchant companies. At the same time, the state did not move away from industry, but took an active part in its development and support, as well as in receiving income from it. For example, state control was manifested through a system of government orders. The activities of the manufactories and factories themselves were strictly controlled through inspections that were carried out periodically and unexpectedly.

Another feature of industry in Russia was that the labor of serfs was used in manufactories and factories. As noted earlier, people from different walks of life worked in factories and factories. At first these were civilian workers, but with the increase in the number of enterprises, an acute shortage of workers began. And then the solution to this problem was the use of forced labor. This was the reason for the passage of the law on the sale of entire villages with the peasants who lived there to work in these factories.

In turn, Peter the Great established the position about the service of the Russian nobility, in this way he believed that this very nobility bears responsibilities to the state and the tsar. After equalizing the rights between the patrimony and the estate, the process of uniting different layers of feudal lords into one class, which had specific privileges, was completed. But the title of nobleman could only be earned through service. In 1722, the organization of the structure of ranks was introduced, in which there was an order of subordination of lower ranks to higher ones. All positions, whether military or civilian, were divided into 14 ranks. To get a certain rank, you had to go through all the previous ones in turn. And only after reaching the eighth rank, a collegiate assessor or major received nobility. In this case, birth was replaced by length of service. If a refusal to serve followed, the state had the right to confiscate possessions. Even if these were hereditary estates. In Western countries, service in the state was a great privilege, but in Russia it is just a duty, one of the many duties that was not always performed efficiently and for the benefit of this state. Therefore, the nobles cannot be considered a class that dominates the state, since this class was completely dependent on the state. It was more like a privileged class, which consisted of military and civilians who served the absolute monarchy completely and unconditionally. Their privileges ended the minute they fell out of favor with the king or left the service. The “emancipation” of the nobility occurred later - in the 30-60s. XVIII century

In history, two points of view are considered that relate to the absolute monarchy of Peter the Great. The first of them is that the absolute monarchy that was formed during the reign of Peter the Great is identical to the absolute monarchy of Western states. The absolute monarchy of Peter had the same characteristics as in other countries - the power of the king, which is not limited by anyone or anything, a permanent powerful army that protects this autocracy, and in such countries the bureaucracy is very well developed and at all levels of the state and finally, a centralized tax system.

As for the second point of view of historians, its essence is that: absolute monarchy in the West arose under capitalism, and Russia was very far from that, then the Russian system of government can be called either despotism, which is close to Asian, or absolute monarchy which originated in Russia is completely typologically different from Western countries.

Having analyzed all the events taking place in Russia during the period of Peter the Great, we can safely say that the second point of view has more rights to exist than the first. This can be confirmed by the fact that in Russia the absolute monarchy is independent in relation to civil society. That is, everyone unconditionally had to serve the monarch. European forms covered and strengthened the eastern essence of the autocratic state, whose educational intentions did not coincide with political practice.

The development of the state in all spheres of activity, both industrial and political, required knowledgeable and trained people. Schools were created to train specialists. Teachers were often invited from abroad. Science and education of that time often depended on foreign countries. Because there was an acute shortage of educated teachers, and they were often invited from European countries. But besides this, our people were often sent abroad to receive a higher and more qualified education there. To this end, in 1696, Peter the Great issued a decree sending 61 people to study, most of whom belonged to the nobility. They could be sent abroad either voluntarily or forcibly. If before the time of Peter the Great, only people close to the government and merchants had the right to travel, then in the era of Peter, traveling abroad was welcomed and encouraged. Sometimes even merchants and craftsmen were sent to study.

In the 17th century, there were two theological academies in Russia, one in Moscow, the other in Kyiv. They were created with the aim of obtaining a highly educated secular population.

In 1701, a school of “mathematical and navigational sciences” was opened, the teacher of which was one of the most educated people of that time, Leonty Magnitsky. The children of nobles, aged 12 to 17, were enrolled in this school, but due to the fact that they did not want to study there, there were cases when even 20-year-old boys were accepted. Since children who were practically not taught to read and write entered the school, the school was divided into three departments: 1) Elementary school, 2) “digital” school, 3) Novigatsk or naval school. Children from almost all classes who could afford education studied in the first two departments. Only children of nobles moved to the third stage of the training. The main disciplines at the school were arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, navigation, geodesy and astronomy. The duration of study did not have clear boundaries; most students studied for about 2.5 years or more. In addition, engineering and artillery schools were established for the nobles. In 1715, the senior classes of the navigation school were transferred to St. Petersburg, where an academy was created. People entered the academy immediately after graduating from digital school, and after the academy, students could also be sent abroad.

Order at the Moscow Academy was maintained through rewards and punishments. This school charter was approved by Peter the Great himself; he personally added some paragraphs to these instructions. This clause stated that a retired soldier should calm down noisy students and maintain order in the classroom during class, and he should do this with the help of a whip. This method could be applied to any student, regardless of his name and status.

Back in Moscow, a surgical school was created at the hospital. The head of this school was Nikolai Bidloo. At school they studied anatomy, surgery, and pharmacology.

Students who distinguished themselves in the navigation school for their behavior, and most importantly the level of knowledge acquired, were used as teachers. They taught in new schools that were created in many cities of Russia. In 1714, a decree was issued on the compulsory education of children of nobles in digital schools. At the end of the training, students received a certificate of completion of a particular school. For example, without this certificate, priests could not marry nobles. Like many things at that time, education was a kind of obligation, which limited and slowed down the enrollment of new students. For example, in Rezan, out of 96 students, 59 simply ran away.

But in general, digital schools continued to exist, already in the 1720s their number reached 44, with a total number of students up to 2000 people. The leading place among the students was occupied by the children of the clergy, then the children of clerks and soldiers, and the children of nobles and townspeople were least interested in learning. Also at that time there were special schools in which the clergy were trained; they were created in 46 cities. That is, in every major city in Russia there were two schools, digital and spiritual.

Engineering schools were also created to train personnel for the army and industry. At the Ural factories of Yekaterinburg, engineer Genin created two schools - verbal and arithmetic, with about 50 people studying in each of them. These schools trained factory foremen and clerical workers, and also taught literacy, geometry, drawing and drawing.

In Moscow, Pastor Gluck created a school with a broader general education program. He planned to conduct lessons in philosophy, geography, various languages ​​at his school, and it was also planned to introduce dancing and riding lessons. In this school, like all the others, only young men studied. After the death of Pasteur, the program was greatly simplified. This school trained personnel for the civil service.

Another way to improve the level of education is to travel abroad to improve this level. The first such trip was before the construction of the fleet began. Noble nobles were sent abroad to study shipbuilding and ship management. And Peter the Great himself repeatedly traveled abroad to experience and learn new things.

Textbooks for the school were published in Russian, but they were translated from a foreign language. Most of all, textbooks on grammar, arithmetic, mathematics, geography, mechanics, land surveying were translated, and geographical maps were made for the first time. The textbooks were translated poorly and the text was very difficult for the students; they often simply memorized it. It was at this time that Russia adopted foreign words such as harbor, raid, midshipman, bot. Peter the Great introduced the civil font into use. The alphabet was simplified, in part closer to Latin. All books have been printed in this font since 1708. With a slight change, it has survived to this day. At the same time, Arabic numerals were introduced, which replaced the designations of letters of the Church Slavonic alphabet.

Over time, Russian scientists began to create their own textbooks and educational aids.

Among the scientific works, the largest was a description of a geographical expedition, which described the exploration of the shores of the Caspian Sea, and also compiled a map of the Caspian Sea for the first time.

Under Peter the Great, the first printed newspaper, Vedomosti, began publication. Its first issue was published on January 2, 1703.

Also, educational goals were in mind when the theater was founded. Under Peter there were attempts to create a folk theater. So in Moscow, on Red Square, a building was built for the theater. The troupe of Johann Kunst was invited from Denmark, which was supposed to train artists of the Russian population. At first the theater was very popular, but over time the number of spectators became less and less and, as a result, the theater on Red Square was closed altogether. But this gave impetus to the development of theatrical spectacle in Russia.

The life of the upper class also changed significantly. Before the era of Peter the Great, the female half of the boyar families lived in seclusion and rarely appeared in the world. We spent most of our time at home, doing household chores. Under Peter the Great, balls were introduced, which were held in the houses of nobles in turn and women were obliged to participate in them. Assemblies, as balls were called in Rus', began at about 5 o'clock and lasted until 10 o'clock in the evening.

A book on the correct etiquette of nobles was a book by an unknown author, which was published in 1717 under the title “Youth Pure Mirror”. The book consisted of two parts. In the first part, the author marked out the alphabet, tables, numbers and numbers. That is, the first part served as a scientific book on teaching the innovations of Peter the Great. The second part, which was the main one, consisted of rules of conduct for boys and girls of the upper class. We can safely say that this was the first ethics textbook in Russia. Young people of noble origin were recommended, first of all, to learn foreign languages, horse riding and dancing. Girls should obediently obey the will of their parents, and they should also be distinguished by their hard work and silence. The books described the behavior of nobles in public life, from rules of behavior at the table to service in government departments. The book formulated a new stereotype of behavior for an upper-class person. The nobleman had to avoid companies that could somehow compromise him; drunkenness, rudeness, and extravagance were also contraindicated. And the manners of behavior themselves should be as close as possible to European ones. In general, the second part was more like a collection of publications on the rules of etiquette of Western countries.

Peter wanted to educate the youth of the upper class according to the European type, while instilling in them the spirit of patriotism and service to the state. The main thing for a nobleman was to protect his honor and the honor of his homeland, but at the same time the honor of the Fatherland was defended with a sword, but a nobleman could defend his honor by filing a complaint with certain authorities. Peter was opposed to duels. Those who violated the decree were severely punished.

The culture of the era of Peter the Great was always under the control of the state and its main direction was the development of the culture of the nobility. This was a feature of Russian culture. The state encouraged and allocated finances from the state treasury only to those areas that it considered important. In general, the culture and art of Peter the Great moved in a positive direction of development. Although even in culture, bureaucracy could be traced over time. Because writers, artists, actors were in the public service, their activities were completely subordinated to the state and, accordingly, they received remuneration for their labors. Culture performed state functions. Theatre, the press and many other branches of culture served as protection and propaganda for Peter's transformation.

Chapter 3. Results and essence of Peter’s reforms

Peter's reforms are grandiose in their scope and consequences. These transformations contributed to the solution of urgent problems facing the state, primarily in the sphere of foreign policy. However, they could not ensure the long-term progress of the country, since they were carried out within the framework of the existing system and, moreover, preserved the Russian feudal-serf system.

As a result of the transformations, powerful industrial production, a strong army and navy were created, which allowed Russia to gain access to the sea, overcome isolation, reduce the gap with the advanced countries of Europe and become a great power in the world.

However, forced modernization and borrowing of technology were carried out due to a sharp increase in archaic forms of exploitation of the people, who paid an extremely high price for the positive results of the reforms.

Reforms of the political system gave new strength to the serving despotic state. European forms covered and strengthened the eastern essence of the autocratic state, whose educational intentions did not coincide with political practice.

Reforms in the field of culture and everyday life, on the one hand, created conditions for the development of science, education, literature, etc. But, on the other hand, the mechanical and forced transfer of many European cultural and everyday stereotypes hindered the full development of a culture based on national traditions.

The main thing was that the nobility, perceiving the values ​​of European culture, sharply isolated itself from the national tradition and its guardian - the Russian people, whose attachment to traditional values ​​and institutions grew as the country modernized. This caused a deep sociocultural split in society, which largely predetermined the depth of contradictions and the strength of social upheavals at the beginning of the twentieth century.

The paradox of Peter’s reform boiled down to the fact that the “Westernization” of Russia, which was of a violent nature, strengthened the foundations of Russian civilization - autocracy and serfdom, on the one hand, brought to life the forces that carried out modernization, and on the other, provoked an anti-modernization and anti-Western reaction from supporters of traditionalism and national identity.

3.1 Assessing the essence of Petrine reforms

On the issue of assessing the essence of Peter's reforms, the opinions of scientists differ. The understanding of this problem is based on either views based on Marxist views, that is, those who believe that the policies of state power are based and conditioned by the socio-economic system, or the position according to which reforms are an expression of the sole will of the monarch. This point of view is typical of the “state” historical school in pre-revolutionary Russia. The first of these many views is the view of the monarch’s personal desire to Europeanize Russia. Historians who adhere to this point of view consider “Europeanization” to be Peter’s main goal. According to Solovyov, the meeting with European civilization was a natural and inevitable event on the path of development of the Russian people. But Soloviev views Europeanization not as an end in itself, but as a means, primarily stimulating the economic development of the country. The theory of Europeanization, naturally, did not meet with approval among historians seeking to emphasize the continuity of the era of Peter in relation to the previous period. An important place in the debate about the essence of reforms is occupied by the hypothesis of the priority of foreign policy goals over domestic ones. This hypothesis was first put forward by Miliukov and Klyuchevsky. Conviction in its infallibility led Klyuchevsky to the conclusion that reforms have varying degrees of importance: he considered military reform to be the initial stage of Peter’s transformative activity, and the reorganization of the financial system to be his ultimate goal. The remaining reforms were either a consequence of changes in military affairs, or prerequisites for achieving the mentioned final goal. Klyuchevsky attached independent importance only to economic policy. The last point of view on this problem is the “idealistic” one. It is most clearly formulated by Bogoslovsky; he characterizes the reforms as the practical implementation of the principles of statehood adopted by the monarch. But here the question arises about the “principles of statehood” as understood by the tsar. Bogoslovsky believes that the ideal of Peter the Great was an absolutist state, the so-called “regular state,” which, through its comprehensive vigilance (police activity), sought to regulate all aspects of public and private life in accordance with the principles of reason and for the benefit of the “common good.” Bogoslovsky especially highlights the ideological aspect of Europeanization. He, like Solovyov, sees in the introduction of the principle of rationality and rationalism a radical break with the past. His understanding of Peter’s reform activity, which can be called “enlightened absolutism,” found many adherents among Western historians, who tend to emphasize that Peter was not an outstanding theorist, and that the reformer, during his foreign travels, took into account, first of all, the practical results of his contemporary life. political science. Some of the adherents of this point of view argue that Petrine state practice was by no means typical for its time, as Bogoslovsky proves. In Russia under Peter the Great, attempts to implement the political ideas of the era were much more consistent and far-reaching than in the West. According to such historians, Russian absolutism, in everything related to its role and impact on the life of Russian society, occupied a completely different position than the absolutism of most European countries. While in Europe the governmental and administrative structure of the state was determined by the social system, in Russia the opposite case took place - here the state and the policies it pursued shaped the social structure.

The first who tried to determine the essence of Peter's reforms from a Marxist position was Pokrovsky. He characterizes this era as the early phase of the emergence of capitalism, when merchant capital begins to create a new economic basis for Russian society. As a consequence of the transfer of economic initiative to the merchants, power passed from the nobility to the bourgeoisie (i.e. to these same merchants). The so-called “spring of capitalism” has arrived. Merchants needed an effective state apparatus that could serve their goals, both in Russia and abroad. It is for this reason, according to Pokrovsky, that Peter’s administrative reforms, wars and economic policy in general are united by the interests of merchant capital. Some historians, attaching great importance to commercial capital, associate it with the interests of the nobility. And although the thesis about the dominant role of merchant capital was rejected in Soviet historiography, we can say that the opinion regarding the class basis of the state remained dominant in Soviet historiography from the mid-30s to the mid-60s. During this period, the generally accepted point of view was that Peter’s state was considered a “national state of landowners” or a “dictatorship of the nobility.” His policy expressed, first of all, the interests of the feudal serfs, although attention was also paid to the interests of the growing bourgeoisie. As a result of the analysis of the political ideology and social position of the state carried out in this direction, the opinion was established that the essence of the idea of ​​​​the “common good” was demagogic, it covered the interests of the ruling class. Although this position is shared by most historians, there are exceptions. For example, Syromyatnikov, in his book about Peter’s state and its ideology, fully subscribe to Bogoslovsky’s characterization of Peter’s state as a typically absolutist state of that era. What was new in the debate about Russian autocracy was his interpretation of the class foundation of this state, which was based on Marxist definitions of the preconditions of European absolutism. Syromyatnikov believes that Peter’s unlimited powers were based on the real situation, namely: the warring classes (nobility and bourgeoisie) during this period achieved such an equality of economic and political forces that allowed state power to achieve a certain independence in relation to both classes, to become a kind of mediator between them. Thanks to a temporary state of equilibrium in the class struggle, state power became a relatively autonomous factor in historical development, and was able to benefit from the growing contradictions between the nobility and the bourgeoisie. The fact that the state thus stood in a certain sense above the class struggle did not in any way mean that it was completely impartial. An in-depth study of the economic and social policies of Peter the Great led Syromyatnikov to the conclusion that the tsar’s transformative activities had a generally anti-feudal orientation, “manifested, for example, in events carried out in the interests of the growing bourgeoisie, as well as in the desire to limit serfdom.” This characterization of the reforms given by Syromyatnikov did not find a significant response among Soviet historians. In general, Soviet historiography did not accept and criticized his conclusions (but not the facts) for the fact that they were very close to Pokrovsky’s previously rejected positions. In addition, many historians do not share the opinion about the balance of power in the Peter the Great period; not everyone recognizes the bourgeoisie, which was barely born in the 18th century, as a real economic and political factor capable of resisting the local nobility. This was confirmed in the course of discussions that took place in Russian historiography in the 70s, as a result of which a relatively complete unity of opinions was achieved regarding the inapplicability of the thesis about the “neutrality” of power and the balance of classes in relation to specific Russian conditions. However, some historians, while generally disagreeing with Syromyatnikov’s opinion, share his view of Peter’s autocracy as relatively independent of class forces. They justify the independence of the autocracy with the thesis of balance in a new version. While Syromyatnikov operates exclusively with the category of social balance of two different classes - the nobility and the bourgeoisie, Fedosov and Troitsky consider the contradictory interests within the ruling class as a source of independence for the political superstructure. And, if Peter the Great was able to implement such an extensive set of reforms contrary to the interests of certain social groups of the population, this was explained by the intensity of that very “intra-class struggle”, where the old aristocracy acted on one side, and the new, bureaucratized nobility on the other. At the same time, the emerging bourgeoisie, supported by the reformist policies of the government, declared itself, although not so significantly, acting in alliance with the last of the named warring parties - the nobility. Another controversial point of view was put forward by A.Ya. Avrekh, the originator of debates about the essence of Russian absolutism. In his opinion, absolutism arose and was finally strengthened under Peter the Great. Its formation and unprecedentedly strong position in Russia became possible thanks to the relatively low level of class struggle, combined with stagnation in the socio-economic development of the country. Absolutism should be considered as a form of a feudal state, but a distinctive feature of Russia was the desire to pursue, despite the obvious weakness of the bourgeoisie, precisely bourgeois policies, and to develop in the direction of a bourgeois monarchy. Naturally, this theory could not be accepted in Soviet historiography, because it contradicted some Marxist principles. This solution to the problem did not find much recognition during the ongoing discussion among Soviet historians about absolutism. However, Averakh cannot be called an atypical participant in this debate, which was characterized, firstly, by a clear desire to emphasize the relative autonomy of state power, and secondly, by the unanimity of scientists on the issue of the impossibility of characterizing political development only through simple conclusions, without taking into account the characteristics of each period of history .

Foreign literature about Russia in the era of Peter the Great, despite the differences in the approach of scientists to assessing the events of that time, has some common features. Paying tribute to the ruler and the successes that were achieved by the country, foreign authors, as a rule, judged the pre-Petrine era in the history of Russia with some underestimation or open disdain. Views according to which Russia made a leap from backwardness and savagery to more advanced forms of social life with the help of the “West” - ideas borrowed from there, and numerous specialists who became assistants to Peter the Great in carrying out reforms - became widespread.

Conclusion

After analyzing the studied material, we can come to the following conclusions about the uniqueness of the reforms of Peter the Great and their impact on the Russian state.

Before Peter came to power, the main factor that influenced the development of the state was its natural-geographical position, as well as social conditions (large territory, unfortunate geographical location, etc.). In addition to internal factors, development was also influenced by external factors. Before Peter the Great, Russia did not have access to the seas, and thus it could not use, primarily for trade, the fastest and cheapest routes for communication.

Peter's reforms, like most reforms in Russia, had their own peculiarity. They were imposed from above and implemented by order. The government regime seemed to stand over the entire society and forced absolutely everyone to serve the state, regardless of class. European forms covered and strengthened the eastern essence of the autocratic state, whose educational intentions did not coincide with political practice.

The reforms of Peter the Great began immediately after his arrival from a border business trip and concerned the appearance of the population, especially those who were close to the state and the tsar himself. Changes concerned the shape and type of clothing, as well as beards. Everyone except the clergy and peasants had to shave their beards.

During his reign, Peter the Great created a powerful Russian Empire, in which he formulated an absolute monarchy and autocracy. No one had the ability to control this.

As for industry, it also had its own characteristics. The development of enterprises was fully supported by the state. Large sums were allocated from the state treasury for the construction of new manufactories, factories and factories. Therefore, for some time they were under state control. But ultimately they passed into private hands, although the state still controlled the activities of private entrepreneurs. And the second feature of the industry was that serfs worked in these same manufactories and factories. That is, free labor. Due to this, the growth and development of manufactories, and industry in general, increased.

As for culture, it was mainly aimed at developing education. Schools were built, which in total provided several thousand people with a primary education, which later contributed to a cultural uplift and a change in attitudes towards schooling. In addition to schools, special education developed. The progress of science was obvious.

The reforms of Peter the Great were very large-scale and brought very great results. As a result of these reforms, the tasks that were formulated in the state and which needed to be solved urgently were solved. Peter the Great was able to solve the assigned tasks, but it was practically impossible to consolidate the process. This was due to the system that existed in the state, as well as serfdom. The main part of the population were peasants, being constantly under oppression, they did not show any initiative in the development of their state.

Bibliography

1. Anisimov E.V. The time of Peter's reforms. About Peter I. -SPb.: Peter, 2002.

Bagger Hans. Reforms of Peter the Great. M.: Progress.: 1985, 200 p.

Klyuchevsky V.O. Historical portraits. Figures of historical thought. / Comp., intro. Art. and note. V.A. Alexandrova. M.: Pravda, 1991. 624 p.

Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history course. T. 3 - M., 2002. 543 p.

Lebedev V.I. Reforms of Peter the Great. M.: 1937

Polyakov L.V. Kara-Murza V. Reformer. Russians about Peter the Great. Ivanovo, 1994

Soloviev S.M. Public readings on the history of Russia. M.: Progress, 1962

Soloviev S.M. About the history of new Russia. M.: Education, 1993.

Collection: Russia during the period of reforms of Peter the Great. M.: Nauka, 1973.

Tutoring

Need help studying a topic?

Our specialists will advise or provide tutoring services on topics that interest you.
Submit your application indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.

The main reason for the administrative reforms of Peter I was his desire to build an absolutist model of monarchy, when all the key levers of government were in the hands of the tsar and his closest advisers.

Local government reforms - in brief

Provincial (regional) reform

Provincial reform of Peter I the Great

The transformations were carried out in two stages:

first stage (1708-1714) was aimed primarily at improving the quality of service to the army - the corresponding military units and shipyards were assigned to the created 8 (by 1714 there were already 11) provinces;
second stage (1719-1721) introduced a three-tier structure: province-province-district, strengthening the vertical of power, police supervision and increasing the efficiency of taxation.

Urban reform

first stage (1699) began with the establishment of the Burmister Chamber (Town Hall), under whose subordination the zemstvo huts were transferred, and the main function became the collection of taxes (instead of the governor);

second stage (1720) marked by the creation of the Chief Magistrate. A division of cities into categories was introduced, and residents into categories and guilds. The magistrate, in its administrative level, corresponded to the collegiums and was subordinate to the Senate.

Central government reforms - in brief

The preparatory stage for the reform of central management can be considered the organization Near office and gradual loss of influence Boyar Duma(last mention in 1704), whose function begins to be fulfilled Ministerial Council. All senior positions in the government bodies created by Peter I are occupied by people loyal to him and personally responsible for the decisions made.

Creation of the Governing Senate

March 2, 1711 Peter I created Governing Senate- the body of the highest legislative, judicial and administrative power, which was supposed to govern the country during the absence of the king during the war. The Senate was completely controlled by the Tsar and was a collegial body (decisions made by members of the Senate had to be unanimous), whose members were appointed by Peter I personally. On February 22, 1711, for additional supervision of officials during the Tsar's absence, the post of fiscal was created.

Creation of Boards

Collegium system

From 1718 to 1726 the creation and development of executive management bodies took place - Collegiums, the purpose of which Peter I saw was to replace the outdated system of orders, which were overly clumsy and duplicating their own functions. The collegiums absorbed orders and relieved the Senate of the burden of deciding small and insignificant issues. The creation of the collegium system completed the process of centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus. A clear distribution of departmental functions and uniform standards of activity significantly distinguished the new apparatus from the order system.

Publication of the General Regulations

March 10, 1720 General Regulations was published and signed by Peter I. This charter of the state civil service in Russia consisted of an introduction, 56 chapters and an appendix with an interpretation of the foreign words included in it. The regulations approved the collegial (unanimous) method of decision-making by the boards, determined the procedure for discussing cases, the organization of office work, and the relationship of the boards with the Senate and local authorities.

Creation of the Holy Synod

February 5, 1721 was established "Holy Governing Synod"(Theological College). The reason for its creation was the desire of Peter I to integrate the Church into the mechanism of the state, limit influence and strengthen control over its activities. All members of the Synod signed the Spiritual Regulations and personally swore allegiance to the Tsar. To protect the interests of the tsar and additional control, the position of chief prosecutor was created under the Synod.

The result of the reforms of the state apparatus under Peter I was a broad structure of administrative bodies, some of which duplicated the functions of each other, but in general were more mobile in terms of solving emerging problems. You can see a schematic representation of government and management bodies in the table on the side.

Military reforms - briefly

The main point The military reforms undertaken by Peter I consisted of five directions:

1. Introduction from 1705 of regular recruitment into the land and naval forces- conscription for tax-paying classes with lifelong service;
2. Rearmament of the army and development of the military industry- construction of factories for the production of weapons, textile factories, metalworking, etc.;
3. Increasing the efficiency of military command and control- publication of regulatory documents (charters, articles, instructions), division of command of troops by type, creation of separate ministries for the army and navy (Military and Admiralty boards);
4. Creation of a fleet and related infrastructure- construction of shipyards, ships, training of military naval specialists;
5. Development of a military school- opening of specialized educational institutions for training officers and new military formations: engineering, mathematics, navigation and other schools.

The results of military reform were impressive. By the end of Peter's reign, the number of regular ground forces reached 210 thousand, and irregular troops up to 110 thousand. The fleet consisted of 48 battleships, 787 galleys and other vessels; There were almost 30 thousand people on all ships.

Economic reforms of Peter I the Great - briefly

The reason for the economic reforms of Peter I was the need to strengthen the provision of the army with supplies and weapons for waging the Northern War, as well as the significant lag of the Russian Kingdom in the industrial sector from the leading European powers.

Currency reform

Without changing the appearance of silver wire kopecks, starting from 1694, dates began to be put on them, and then the weight was reduced to 0.28 g. Since 1700, the minting of small change copper coins began - money, half coins, half half coins, i.e. denominations smaller than a penny.

The main units of the new monetary system were the copper kopeck and the silver ruble. The monetary system was converted to decimal(1 ruble = 100 kopecks = 200 money), and the process of minting coins was modernized - a screw press began to be used. To meet the needs of the economy, Peter I created five mints.

Tax reform

First census population 1710 was based on the household principle of accounting for taxes and revealed that peasants united their households, surrounding them with a single fence, in order to evade paying taxes.

By decree of November 26, 1718 Peter I began the second census, according to the rules of which not the number of households was recorded, but specific male persons. (capita census)

Introduction of the poll tax

After the end of the census in 1722(5,967,313 males were counted), calculations were made of the fees sufficient to support the army. Eventually capitation tax has been installed in 1724 - from each soul (i.e., every man, boy, old man belonging to the tax-paying classes) was supposed to pay 95 kopecks.

Reforms in industry and trade

Monopolies and protectionism

Peter I approved in 1724 protective customs tariff, prohibiting or limiting the import of foreign goods and semi-finished products with high duties. This was primarily due to the low quality of domestic products, which could not stand up to competition. Private and state monopolies were organized within the country - pharmaceutical, wine, salt, flax, tobacco, bread, etc. At the same time, state monopolies served to replenish the treasury from the sale of popular products, and private monopolies served to accelerate the development of specific branches of production and trade.

Social reforms - briefly

In the fields of education, healthcare and science

Most educational institutions were created due to the need to train new types of troops or their own officers for the army and navy. Simultaneously with the organization of various specialized schools (engineering, mining, artillery, medical, etc.), children of nobles were sent abroad, and scientists and engineers were invited from Europe, who were obliged to train the most capable people in production. Compulsory primary education met resistance - in 1714, simultaneously with the creation of digital schools, Peter I was forced to issue a decree prohibiting young nobles who had not received an education from marrying.

Medicine needed state support, and the state needed field surgeons - so the founding of the Moscow Hospital in 1706 solved two problems at once. To provide public and private pharmacies (which were given a monopoly on pharmacy activities) with the necessary medicinal herbs, a vegetable garden was founded on Aptekarsky Island in 1714.

In 1724, Peter I signed a decree establishing the Academy of Sciences and Arts, which laid the foundation for all future Russian science. Foreign specialists were invited to work in the new institution, and until 1746, most of the academicians were foreigners.

Cultural reforms

The culture of the Russian people can be quite clearly divided into the time before Peter I and after him - so strong was his desire to instill European values ​​and change the established traditions of the Russian kingdom. The main reason and source of inspiration for the tsar’s cultural transformations was his Great Embassy - a trip to Europe in 1697-1698.

The key innovations were:

• Permission to sell and use tobacco
• New rules in clothing and appearance
• New chronology and calendar
• Opening of the Kunstkamera (Museum of Curiosities)
• Attempts to organize a public theater (comedy temple)

Estate reforms

The class transformations of Peter I corresponded to his desire to add responsibilities to all subordinates (without distinction of origin), even to the nobility. In general, the period of his reign is characterized by the tightening of serfdom, the weakening of the influence of the church and the provision of new rights and privileges to the nobles. Separately, it is worth highlighting the emergence of such a social elevator as the opportunity to receive nobility for achieving certain ranks of civil and military service, according to Tables of ranks

Church reform

The main essence of the church reforms undertaken by Peter I was elimination of autonomy and integration of the institution of the church into the state apparatus, with all the accompanying characteristics - reporting, limited number of personnel, etc. The ban on the election of a patriarch in 1700 and the establishment of a replacement in 1721 of the Holy Synod marked another stage in the formation of absolutism as a form of government of the state - before the Patriarch was perceived as practically equal to the king and had great influence on ordinary people.

Results and results of reforms

• Modernization of the administrative apparatus and building a rigid vertical of power in accordance with the concept of an absolutist monarchy.
• Introduction of a new principle of administrative-territorial division (province-province-district) and changes in the principle of the basic tax (capitation instead of household tax).
• Creation of a regular army and navy, infrastructure for providing military units with provisions, weapons and quarters.
• Introduction of European traditions into the culture of Russian society.
• The introduction of general primary education, the opening of specialized schools for the training of various military and civilian specialists, the establishment of the Academy of Sciences.
• The enslavement of the peasantry, the weakening of the church, the definition of additional responsibilities for all classes and the provision of the opportunity to receive the nobility for merit in the service of the sovereign.
• Development of various types of industry - mining, processing, textile, etc.

Peter I and his reforms. The main directions of Europeanization of the country.

1. Introduction

2. Beginning of the reign of Peter

3. Prerequisites for reforms

4. Military reforms

5. Judicial reform

6. Church reform

7. Economic reform

8. Administrative reforms

9. Conclusion

Introduction

According to many historians, the most striking example of carrying out a whole complex of state reforms in a relatively short period of time are the reforms of Peter I, which allowed Russia to turn from a culturally, economically and militarily backward country into one of the leading European states in just a quarter of a century.

The idea of ​​serving the state, in which Peter I deeply believed and to which he subordinated his activities, was the essence of his life and permeated all his endeavors. Until his death, Peter continued to serve the Russian state.

Petrine reforms, which affected almost all spheres of life of the Russian state, without a doubt, had a decisive impact on the entire further course of the historical process in our country. During the reign of Peter I, our state made a huge leap forward in industrial development. Russia established itself on the shores of the Baltic and acquired the shortest trade route to Europe. The first printed newspaper appeared, the first military and professional schools were opened, and the first printing houses appeared that printed books of secular content. The country's first museum. The first public library. The first parks. Finally, the first decree on the organization of the Academy of Sciences.

The great reformer made numerous changes to the state structure: he made judicial and military reforms, changed the administrative division, actively participated in the drafting of legal codes, etc. A comprehensive examination of the nature of Peter’s government reforms is the purpose of this work.

Beginning of the reign of Peter

After the death of Fyodor Alekseevich in 1682, a struggle between various factions at the throne unfolded for the proclamation of 10-year-old Peter, the son of Alexei Mikhailovich from his second wife, N.K. Naryshkina, or 16-year-old Ivan, who was in poor health, the king’s son from his first wife, M., as tsar. I. Miloslavskaya. The Miloslavsky group, led by the energetic and power-hungry Sofya Alekseevna, eventually achieved the approval of two brothers on the throne at once (an unprecedented case in the history of the Moscow state, indicating a deep spiritual and political crisis in society) under the actual regency of Sophia. Her government was led by the favorite of the princess V.V. Golitsyn, a European-educated man, who, according to some information, intended to turn the landowner peasants into state peasants. (Probably, the balance of political forces, the precariousness of his position and a certain softness of character, inconsistent with the spirit of the times, did not allow his reform potential to unfold, although it is possible that his plans could become an alternative to Peter’s reform).

Formation of the personality of the king-reformer.

Peter and his entourage were removed from the Kremlin and lived in the village. Preobrazhensky near Moscow. Left to his own devices, the boy was drawn to knowledge and was keenly interested in crafts. And although these activities contradicted the ideas about the image of the “Orthodox king,” they helped Peter perceive the world as it is. This is probably where his rationalism and pragmatism, ability and desire to learn new things came from. Since childhood, Peter's passion was military fun, in which the children of servicemen and commoners took part. It was from them that the “amusing regiments” - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky - were formed, which later became the basis of the Russian regular army and the first guards regiments. In communication with ordinary people, the democratic traits of the tsar’s behavior were formed, his ability to understand people, appreciate and promote them for their abilities and merits, and not for their nobility of origin. At the same time, it also manifested such a quality as disregard for the life and interests of an individual for the sake of a common, primarily state, cause.

According to V. O. Klyuchevsky, “being kind by nature as a person, Peter was rude like a king.”

During his adolescence, Peter also became acquainted with foreigners and European culture. Visiting the German settlement on the river. Yauze, he met a unique cast of Western civilization and recognized a completely different type of interhuman relations, a different type of culture and way of life. At the same time, Peter’s love for the sea and navigation awakened.

Thus, already during this period of his life, Peter developed such views and character traits that not only pushed him to reforms, but also influenced the course and methods of reforms.

The beginning of Peter's independent reign I .

Power struggle. At the beginning of 1689, Peter married Evdokia Lopukhina, which meant his coming of age and gave him all the rights to independent rule. Relations between Peter and Sophia worsened, the regent again tried to rely on the archers, but, in the end, was forced to give in to her half-brother. Her defeat was due to a number of factors:

Sophia, as a ruler, managed to cause discontent among various layers of society, who traditionally expected various concessions and improvements in life from the new “sovereign”;

The fact that a woman was at the head of the state contradicted the patriarchal consciousness of people;

The failures of the Crimean campaigns were blamed on Sophia and her favorite, V.V. Golitsyn.

However, direct power was in the hands of Peter's relatives - the Naryshkins and Lopukhins, who, according to contemporaries, primarily cared about their own interests.

This board, according to B.I. Kurakin, was “very dishonest; great bribery and state theft.”

Tsar Ivan V, who never participated in state affairs, formally remained Peter's co-ruler until his death in 1696.

Azov campaigns. The direct government activity of Peter himself began with the organization of the first Azov campaign in 1695. The powerful Turkish fortress could not be taken due to the lack of a fleet capable of blocking it from the sea. Peter, realizing the reasons for the failures, began energetic preparations for the second campaign and, thanks to the actions of the galleys built at the Voronezh shipyards, managed to take Azov in 1696.

"Great Embassy" To develop success and achieve a breakthrough into the Black Sea, Peter decided to create a powerful fleet. In addition, he organized the “Great Embassy” to Europe in 1697. The goals of the embassy were:

Strengthening and expanding the anti-Turkish alliance;

Invitation of specialists to the Russian service, purchase and order of weapons;

Peter’s personal acquaintance with the political situation, economic and cultural achievements of Western European countries. For the first time, the “Orthodox Tsar” left his country, albeit incognito under the name of volunteer Peter Mikhailov, and entered the “unclean” land of foreigners.

Embassy results. In the conditions of preparation of European countries for the war for the “Spanish inheritance,” Peter failed to solve the main diplomatic task and prevent the signing of a separate peace between Austria and Turkey.

Prerequisites for reforms

The country was on the eve of great transformations. What were the prerequisites for Peter's reforms?

Russia was a backward country. This backwardness posed a serious danger to the independence of the Russian people.

Industry was feudal in structure, and in terms of production volume it was significantly inferior to the industry of Western European countries.

The Russian army largely consisted of backward noble militia and archers, poorly armed and trained. The complex and clumsy state apparatus, headed by the boyar aristocracy, did not meet the needs of the country.

Rus' also lagged behind in the field of spiritual culture. Education hardly penetrated the masses, and even in the ruling circles there were many uneducated and completely illiterate people.

Russia in the 17th century, by the very course of historical development, was faced with the need for radical reforms, since only in this way could it secure its worthy place among the states of the West and the East.

Already before Peter, a fairly integral reform program had been drawn up, which in many ways coincided with Peter’s reforms, in others going even further than them. A general transformation was being prepared, which, in the peaceful course of affairs, could spread over a number of generations. At the end of the 17th century, when the young Tsar Peter I came to the Russian throne, our country was experiencing a turning point in its history.

In Russia, unlike the main Western European countries, there were almost no large industrial enterprises capable of providing the country with weapons, textiles, and agricultural implements. It had no access to the seas - neither the Black nor the Baltic, through which it could develop foreign trade. Therefore, Russia did not have its own navy to guard its borders. The land army was built according to outdated principles and consisted mainly of noble militia. The nobles were reluctant to leave their estates for military campaigns; their weapons and military training lagged behind the advanced European armies.

There was a fierce struggle for power between the old, well-born boyars and the serving nobles. There were continuous uprisings of peasants and urban lower classes in the country, who fought both against the nobles and against the boyars, since they were all feudal serfs. Russia attracted the greedy gaze of neighboring states - Sweden, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which were not averse to seizing and subjugating Russian lands.

It was necessary to reorganize the army, build a fleet, take possession of the sea coast, create a domestic industry, and rebuild the system of government of the country.

He managed to bring the Russian state out of the shadows - thanks to his reforms, Russia became one of the leading powers in the arena of world life. This happened after the introduction of changes that affected almost all aspects of life (especially affected

First of all, we touched upon the transformation of central management. As a result, the Boyar Duma was abolished and replaced by the Near Chancellery, which in 1708 was renamed the Council of Ministers.

The next item on the list of reforms was the creation (in 1711) of which became the highest government agency. He took part in legislative, administrative and judicial matters.

Reforms of Peter the Great 1718-1720s. cumbersome and clumsy laws were abolished and collegiums were introduced - initially there were 11 of them: the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, which was in charge of foreign policy affairs; The Military College, which controlled all the country's ground forces; the Admiralty Board, which controlled the navy; The Berg College dealt with the mining industry; The College of Justice subordinated the civil and criminal courts, etc.

The one signed in 1714 by Peter the Great was also important. The reforms were as follows: according to this document, the estates of the nobles were now equal to the boyar estates, and the introduction of this decree was aimed at eliminating the boundaries between the clan and noble nobility. Moreover, now there was no difference between boyar and noble land. A little later, in 1722, Peter adopted the Table of Ranks, which finally erased the boundaries between the new and old aristocracy and completely equalized them.

In 1708, to strengthen the apparatus of power and increase its influence, the Regional Reform was introduced: the country was divided into eight provinces. Its logical conclusion was management: more and more cities appeared, and accordingly, the country’s population grew (by the end of the reign of Peter the Great, an average of 350 thousand people lived in large towns). And the composition of the urban population was complex: the main part were small artisans, townspeople, traders and entrepreneurs.

Under Peter the Great, the process of transformation of the church was completely completed - the reforms of Peter the Great turned it into an important state institution, subordinate to the highest secular authorities. After the death of Patriarch Adrian, the tsar forbade holding elections for a new patriarch, citing the unexpected outbreak of the Northern War. He was appointed at the head of the patriarchal throne. After the Northern War, Peter abolished the patriarchate completely. Management of all church affairs and issues was entrusted to the Theological College, then renamed the Holy Government Synod, which completely turned the church into a powerful support of Russian absolutism.

But the great transformations and reforms of Peter the Great brought with them many problems, the main of which were the tightening of serfdom and the development of bureaucracy.